Passage 1
The fossil remains of the first flying vertebrates，the pterosaurs，have intrigued paleontologists for more than two centuries. How such large creatures，which weighed in some cases as much as a piloted hang-glider and had wingspans from 8 to 12 meters，solved the problems of powered flight，and exactly what these creatures were-reptiles or birds are among the questions scientists have puzzled over.
Perhaps the least controversial assertion about the pterosaurs is that they were reptiles. Their skulls pelvises，and hind feet are reptilian. The anatomy of their wings suggests that they did not evolve into the class of birds. In pterosaurs a greatly elongated fourth finger of each forelimb supported a wing like membrane. The other fingers were short and reptilian，with sharp claws. In birds the second finger is the principal strut of the wing，which consists primarily of feathers. If the pterosaurs walked on all fours，the three short fingers may have been employed for grasping. When a pterosaur walked or remained stationary，the fourth finger，and with it the wing，could only turn upward in an extended inverted V-shape along each side of the animal's body.
The pterosaurs resembled both birds and bats in their overall structure and proportions. This is not surprising because the design of any flying vertebrate is subject to aerodynamic constraints. Both the pterosaurs and the birds have hollow bones，a feature that represents a savings in weight. In the birds，however， these bones are reinforced more massively by internal struts.
Although scales typically cover reptiles，the pterosaurs probably had hairy coats. T.H. Huxley reasoned that flying vertebrates must have been warm blooded because flying implies a high rate of metabolism，which in turn implies a high internal temperature. Huxley speculated that a coat of hair would insulate against loss of body heat and might streamline the body to reduce drag in flight. The recent discovery of a pterosaur specimen covered in long，dense，and relatively thick hair like fossil material was the first clear evidence that his reasoning was correct.
Efforts to explain how the pterosaurs because airborne have led to suggestions that they launched themselves by jumping from cliffs，by dropping from trees or even by rising into light winds from the crests of waves. Each hypothesis has its difficulties. The first wrongly assumes that the pterosaurs' hind feet resembled a bat's and could serve as hooks by which the animal could hang in preparation for flight. The second hypothesis seems unlikely because large pterosaurs could not have landed in trees without damaging their wings. The third calls for high waves to channel updrafts. The wind that made such waves however might have been too strong for the pterosaurs to control their flight once airborne.
1.It can be inferred from the passage that scientists now generally agree that the
（A） enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances
（B） structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close evolutionary relationship to bats
（C） fossil remains of the pterosaurs reveal how they solved the problem of powered flight
（D） pterosaurs were reptiles
（E） pterosaurs walked on all fours
2.The author views the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light winds created by waves as
（A） revolutionary
（B） unlikely
（C） unassailable
（D） probable
（E） outdated
3.According to the passage，the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished from that of a bird by the
（A） size of its wingspan
（B） presence of hollow spaces in its bones
（C） anatomic origin of its wing strut
（D） presence of hook like projections on its hind feet
（E） location of the shoulder joint joining the wing to its body
4.The ideas attributed to T.H. Huxiey in the passage suggest that he would most likely agree with which of the following statements？
（A） An animal's brain size has little bearing on its ability to master complex behaviors.
（B） An animal's appearance is often influenced by environmental requirements and physical capabilities.
（C） Animals within a given family group are unlikely to change their appearance dramatically over a period of time.
（D） The origin of flight in vertebrates was an accidental development rather than the outcome of specialization or adaptation.
（E） The pterosaurs should be classified as birds，not reptiles.
5.It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is characteristic of the pterosaurs？
（A） They were unable to fold their wings when not in use
（B） They hung upside down from branches as bats do before flight.
（C） They flew in order to capture prey.
（D） They were an early stage in the evolution of the birds.
（E） They lived primarily in a forest like habitat.
6.Which of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph of the passage？
（A） New evidence is introduced to support a traditional point of view.
（B） Three explanations for a phenomenon are presented， and each is disputed by means of specific information.
（C） Three hypotheses are outlined，and evidence supporting each is given.
（D） Recent discoveries are described, and their implications for future study are projected.
（E） A summary of the material in the preceding paragraphs is presented， and conclusions are drawn.
7.It can be inferred from the passage that some scientists believe that pterosaurs
（A） lived near large bodies of water
（B） had sharp teeth for tearing food
（C） were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles
（D） had longer tails than many birds
（E） consumed twice their weight daily to maintain their body temperature
Passage 2
In the eighteenth century， Japan's feudal overlords， from the shogun to the humblest samurai， found themselves under financial stress. In part， this stress can be attributed to the overlords' failure to adjust to a rapidly expanding economy， but the stress was also due to factors beyond the overlords' control. Concentration of the samurai in castle-towns had acted as a stimulus to trade. Commercial efficiency， in turn， had put temptations in the way of buyers. Since most samurai had been reduced to idleness by years of peace， encouraged to engage in scholarship and martial exercises or to perform administrative tasks that took little time， t is not surprising that their tastes and habits grew expensive.
Overlords' income，despite the in-crease in rice production among their tenant farmers，failed to keep pace with their expenses. Although shortfalls in overlords' income resulted almost as much from laxity among their tax collectors （the nearly inevitable outcome of hereditary office holding）as from their higher standards of living，a misfortune like a fire or flood，bringing an increase in expenses or a drop in revenue，could put a domain in debt to the city rice-brokers who handled its finances. Once in debt，neither the individual samurai nor the shogun himself found it easy to recover.
It was difficult for individual samurai over- lords to increase their income because the amount of rice that farmers could be made to pay in taxes was not unlimited， and since the income of Japan's central government consisted impart of taxes collected by the shogun from his
huge domain，the government too was con-strained. Therefore，the Tokugawa shoguns began to look to other sources for revenue. Cash profits from government-owned mines were already on the decline because the most easily worked deposits of silver and gold had been exhausted，although debasement of the coinage had compensated for the loss
Opening up new farmland was a possibility，but most of what was suitable had already been exploited and further reclamation was technically unfeasible. Direct taxation of the samurai themselves would be politically dangerous. This left the shoguns only commerce as a potential source of government income.
Most of the country's wealth，or so it seemed，was finding its way into the hands of city merchants. It appeared reasonable that they should contribute part of that revenue to ease the shogun's burden of financing the state. A means of obtaining such revenue was soon found by levying forced loans，known as goyokin；although these were not taxes in the strict sense，since they were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount，they were high in yield. Unfortunately， they pushed up prices. Thus，regrettably，the Tokugawa shoguns' search for solvency for the government made it increasingly difficult for individual Japanese who lived on fixed stipends to make ends meet.
1.The passage is most probably an excerpt from
（A） an economic history of Japan
（B） the memoirs of a samurai warrior
（C） a modern novel about eighteenth-century Japan
（D） an essay contrasting Japanese feudalism with its Western counterpart
（E） an introduction to a collection of Japanese folktales
2.Which of the following financial situations is most analogous to the financial situation in which Japan's Tokugawa shoguns found themselves in the eighteenth century？
（A） A small business borrows heavily to invest in new equipment， but is able to pay off its debt early when it is awarded a lucrative government contract.
（B） Fire destroys a small business， but insurance covers the cost of rebuilding.
（C） A small business is turned down for a loan at a local bank because the owners have no credit history.
（D） A small business has to struggles to meet operating expenses when its profits decrease.
（E） A small business is able to cut back sharply spending through greater commercial efficiency and thereby compensate for a loss of revenue.
