ARGUMENTS INTRODUCTION
AN ARGUMENT, AS USED ON THE GMAT, IS A PRESENTATION OF FACTS AND OPINIONS IN
ORDER TO SUPPORT A POSITION. MANY ARGUMENTS WILL BE FALLACIOUS. AND MANY CO
RRECT ANSWERS WILL BE FALSE! THIS OFTEN CAUSES STUDENTS MUCH CONSTERNATION.
THEY FEEL THAT THE CORRECT ANSWER SHOULD BE TRUE. BUT THE ARGUMENTS ARE INTE
NDED TO TEST YOUR ABILITY TO THINK LOGICALLY. NOW LOGIC IS THE STUDY OF THE
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STATEMENTS, NOT OF THE TRUTH OF THOSE STATEMENTS. BEIN
G OVERLY CONCERNED WITH FINDING THE TRUTH CAN BE RUINOUS TO YOUR GMAT ARGUME
NT SCORE.
"2 OUT OF 5" RULE
CREATING A GOOD BUT INCORRECT ANSWER-CHOICE IS MUCH HARDER THAN DEVELOPING T
HE CORRECT ANSWER. FOR THIS REASON, USUALLY ONLY ONE ATTRACTIVE WRONG ANSWER
-CHOICE IS PRESENTED. THIS IS CALLED THE "2 OUT OF 5" RULE. THAT IS, ONLY TW
O OF THE FIVE ANSWER-CHOICES WILL HAVE ANY REAL MERIT. HENCE, EVEN IF YOU DO
N’T FULLY UNDERSTAND AN ARGUMENT, YOU PROBABLY CAN STILL ELIMINATE THE THREE
FLUFF CHOICES, THEREBY GREATLY INCREASING YOUR ODDS OF ANSWERING THE QUESTI
ON CORRECTLY.
LOGIC I
ALTHOUGH IN THEORY THE ARGUMENT QUESTIONS ARE DESIGNED TO BE ANSWERED WITHOU
T ANY REFERENCE TO FORMAL LOGIC, THE SECTION IS ESSENTIALLY A LOGIC TEST. SO
ME KNOWLEDGE OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC, THEREFORE, WILL GIVE YOU A DEFINI
TE ADVANTAGE. ARMED WITH THIS KNOWLEDGE, YOU SHOULD QUICKLY NOTICE THAT THE
ARGUMENTS ARE FUNDAMENTALLY EASY AND THAT MOST OF THEM FALLSINTOSA FEW BASIC
CATEGORIES. IN THIS SECTION, WE WILL STUDY THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ARGUMEN
TS. IN LOGIC II, WE WILL SYMBOLIZE AND DIAGRAM ARGUMENTS IN MUCH THE SAME WA
Y AS WE DID WITH GAMES.
CONCLUSIONS
MOST ARGUMENT QUESTIONS HINGE, EITHER DIRECTLY or INDIRECTLY, ON DETERMINING
THE CONCLUSION OF THE ARGUMENT. THE CONCLUSION IS THE MAIN IDEA OF THE ARGU
MENT. IT IS WHAT THE WRITER TRIES TO PERSUADE THE READER TO BELIEVE. MOST OF
TEN THE CONCLUSION COMES AT THE END OF THE ARGUMENT. THE WRITER ORGANIZES TH
E FACTS AND HIS OPINIONS SO THAT THEY BUILD UP TO THE CONCLUSION. SOMETIMES,
HOWEVER, THE CONCLUSION WILL COME AT THE BEGINNING OF AN ARGUMENT, RARELY D
OES IT COME IN THE MIDDLE, AND OCCASIONALLY, FOR RHETORICAL EFFECT, THE CONC
LUSION IS NOT EVEN STATED.
EXAMPLE:
THE POLICE ARE THE ARMED GUARDIANS OF THE SOCIAL ORDER. THE BLACKS ARE THE C
HIEF DOMESTIC VICTIMS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIAL ORDER. A CONFLICT OF INTEREST E
XISTS, THEREFORE, BETWEEN THE BLACKS AND THE POLICE.--ELDRIDGE CLEAVER, SOUL
ON ICE
HERE THE FIRST TWO SENTENCES ANTICIPATE or SET UP THE CONCLUSION. BY CHANGIN
G THE GRAMMAR SLIGHTLY, THE CONCLUSION CAN BE PLACED AT THE BEGINNING OF THE
ARGUMENT AND STILL SOUND NATURAL:
A CONFLICT OF INTEREST EXISTS BETWEEN THE BLACKS AND THE POLICE BECAUSE THE
POLICE ARE THE ARMED GUARDIANS OF THE SOCIALSGROUPSAND THE BLACKS ARE THE CH
IEF DOMESTIC VICTIMS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIAL ORDER.
THE CONCLUSION CAN ALSO BE FORCEDSINTOSTHE MIDDLE:
THE POLICE ARE THE ARMED GUARDIANS OF THE SOCIAL ORDER. SO A CONFLICT OF INT
EREST EXISTS BETWEEN THE BLACKS AND THE POLICE BECAUSE THE BLACKS ARE THE CH
IEF DOMESTIC VICTIMS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIAL ORDER.
IT IS GENERALLY AWKWARD, AS IN THE PREVIOUS PARAGRAPH, TO PLACE THE CONCLUSI
ON IN THE MIDDLE OF THE ARGUMENT BECAUSE THEN IT CANNOT BE FULLY ANTICIPATED
BY WHAT COMES BEFORE NOR FULLY EXPLAINED BY WHAT COMES AFTER. ON THE RARE O
CCASION WHEN A CONCLUSION COMES IN THE MIDDLE OF AN ARGUMENT, MOST OFTEN EIT
HER THE MATERIAL THAT COMES AFTER IT or THE MATERIAL THAT COMES BEFORE IT IS
NOT ESSENTIAL.
IN SUMMARY: TO FIND THE CONCLUSION, CHECK THE LAST SENTENCE OF THE ARGUMENT.
IF THAT IS NOT THE CONCLUSION, CHECK THE FIRST SENTENCE. RARELY DOES THE CO
NCLUSION COME IN THE MIDDLE OF AN ARGUMENT.
WHEN DETERMINING THE MEANING OF A CONCLUSION, BE CAREFUL NOT TO READ ANY MOR
ESINTOSIT THAN WHAT THE AUTHOR STATES. ALTHOUGH ARGUMENTS ARE NOT WORDED AS
PRECISELY AS GAMES, YOU STILL NEED TO READ THEM WITH MORE CARE THAN YOU WOUL
D USE IN YOUR EVERYDAY READING.
AS WITH GAMES, READ THE WORDS AND SENTENCES OF AN ARGUMENT PRECISELY, AND US
E THEIR LITERAL MEANING.
FOR EXAMPLE, CONSIDER THE MEANING OF SOME IN THE SENTENCE "SOME OF MARY’S FR
IENDS WENT TO THE PARTY." IT WOULD BE UNWARRANTED, BASED ON THIS STATEMENT,
TO ASSUME THAT SOME OF MARY’S FRIENDS DID NOT GO TO THE PARTY. ALTHOUGH IT M
AY SEEM DECEIVING TO SAY THAT SOME OF MARY’S FRIENDS WENT TO THE PARTY WHEN
IN FACT ALL OF THEM DID, IT IS NONETHELESS TECHNICALLY CONSISTENT WITH THE M
EANING OF SOME.
SOME MEANS "AT LEAST ONE AND PERHAPS ALL."
AS MENTIONED BEFORE, THE CONCLUSION USUALLY COMES AT THE END OF AN ARGUMENT,
SOMETIMES AT THE BEGINNING, AND RARELY IN THE MIDDLE. WRITERS USE CERTAIN WORDS TO INDICATE THAT THE CONCLUSION IS ABOUT TO BE STATED. FOLLOWING IS A L IST OF THE MOST COMMON CONCLUSION INDICATORS:
CONCLUSION INDICATORS
HENCE THEREFORE
SO ACCORDINGLY
THUS CONSEQUENTLY
FOLLOWS THAT SHOWS THAT
CONCLUDE THAT IMPLIES
AS A RESULT MEANS THAT
MOST OFTEN THE CONCLUSION OF AN ARGUMENT IS PUT IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT.
SOMETIMES, HOWEVER, THE CONCLUSION IS GIVEN AS A COMMAND or OBLIGATION.
EXAMPLE:
ALL THINGS CONSIDERED, YOU OUGHT TO VOTE.
HERE, THE AUTHOR IMPLIES THAT YOU ARE OBLIGED TO VOTE.
THE CONCLUSION CAN EVEN BE PUT IN THE FORM OF A QUESTION. THIS RHETORICAL TE
CHNIQUE IS QUITE EFFECTIVE IN CONVINCING PEOPLE THAT A CERTAIN POSITION IS C
ORRECT. WE ARE MORE LIKELY TO BELIEVE SOMETHING IF WE FEEL THAT WE CONCLUDED
IT ON OUR OWN, or AT LEAST IF WE FEEL THAT WE WERE NOT TOLD TO BELIEVE IT.
A CONCLUSION PUT IN QUESTION FORM CAN HAVE THIS RESULT.
EXAMPLE:
THE NANUUTS BELIEVE THAT THEY SHOULD NOT TAKE FROM NATURE ANYTHING SHE CANNO
T REPLENISH DURING THEIR LIFETIME. THIS ASSURES THAT FUTURE GENERATIONS CAN
ENJOY THE SAME RICHES OF NATURE THAT THEY HAVE. AT THE CURRENT RATE OF DESTR
UCTION, THE RAIN FORESTS WILL DISAPPEAR DURING OUR LIFETIME. DO WE HAVE AN O
BLIGATION TO FUTURE GENERATIONS TO PREVENT THIS RESULT?
HERE THE AUTHOR TRUSTS THAT THE POWER OF HER ARGUMENT WILL PERSUADE THE READ
ER TO ANSWER THE QUESTION AFFIRMATIVELY.
TAKING THIS RHETORICAL TECHNIQUE ONE STEP FURTHER, THE WRITER MAY BUILD UP T
O THE CONCLUSION BUT LEAVE IT UNSTATED. THIS ALLOWS THE READER TO MAKE UP HI
S OWN MIND. IF THE BUILD-UP IS DONE SKILLFULLY, THE READER WILL BE MORE LIKE
LY TO AGREE WITH THE AUTHOR, WITHOUT FEELING MANIPULATED.
EXAMPLE:
HE WHO IS WITHOUT SIN SHOULD CAST THE FIRST STONE. THERE IS NO ONE HERE WHO
DOES NOT HAVE A SKELETON IN HIS CLOSET.
THE UNSTATED BUT OBVIOUS CONCLUSION HERE IS THAT NONE OF THE PEOPLE HAS THE
RIGHT TO CAST THE FIRST STONE.
WHEN DETERMINING THE CONCLUSION’S SCOPE BE CAREFUL NOT TO READ ANY MORE or L
ESSSINTOSIT THAN THE AUTHOR STATES. GMAT WRITERS OFTEN CREATE WRONG ANSWER-C
HOICES BY SLIGHTLY OVERSTATING or UNDERSTATING THE AUTHOR’S CLAIM. CERTAIN W
ORDS LIMIT THE SCOPE OF A STATEMENT. THESE WORDS ARE CALLED QUANTIFIERS--PAY
CLOSE ATTENTION TO THEM. FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT QUANTIFI
ERS:
