passage 23
at the end of the nineteenth century， a rising interestin native american customs and an increasing desire tounderstand native american culture prompted ethnolo-gists to begin recording the life stories of native amer-（5） ican. ethnologists had a distinct reason for wanting tohear the stories： they were after linguistic or anthropo-logical data that would supplement their own fieldobservations， and they believed that the personalstories， even of a single individual， could increase their（10） understanding of the cultures that they had beenobserving from without. in addition many ethnologistsat the turn of the century believed that native amer-ican manners and customs were rapidly disappearing，and that it was important to preserve for posterity as（15） much information as could be adequately recordedbefore the cultures disappeared forever.
there were， however， arguments against this methodas a way of acquiring accurate and complete informa-tion. franz boas， for example， described autobiogra-（20） phies as being “of limited value， and useful chiefly forthe study of the perversion of truth by memory，” whilepaul radin contended that investigators rarely spentenough time with the tribes they were observing， andinevitably derived results too tinged by the investi-（25） gator‘s own emotional tone to be reliable.
even more importantly， as these life stories movedfrom the traditional oral mode to recorded writtenform， much was inevitably lost. editors often decidedwhat elements were significant to the field research on a（30） given tribe. native americans recognized that theessence of their lives could not be communicated inenglish and that events that they thought significantwere often deemed unimportant by their interviewers.indeed， the very act of telling their stories could force（35） native american narrators to distort their cultures， astaboos had to be broken to speak the names of deadrelatives crucial to their family stories.
despite all of this， autobiography remains a usefultool for ethnological research： such personal reminis-（40） cences and impressions， incomplete as they may be， arelikely to throw more light on the working of the mindand emotions than any amount of speculation from anethnologist or ethnological theorist from anotherculture.
1. which of the following best describes the organization of the passage？
（a） the historical backgrounds of two currently used research methods are chronicled.
（b） the validity of the data collected by using two different research methods is compared.
（c） the usefulness of a research method is questioned and then a new method is proposed.
（d） the use of a research method is described and the limitations of the results obtained are discussed.
（e） a research method is evaluated and the changes necessary for its adaptation to other subject areas are discussed.
2. which of the following is most similar to the actions ofnineteenth-century ethnologists in their editing of thelife stories of native americans？
（a） a witness in a jury trial invokes the fifth amendment in order to avoid relating personally incriminating evidence.
（b） a stockbroker refuses to divulge the source of her information on the possible future increase in a stock‘s value.
（c） a sports announcer describes the action in a team sport with which he is unfamiliar.
（d） a chef purposely excludes the special inGREdient from the recipe of his prizewinning dessert.
（e） a politician fails to mention in a campaign speech the similarities in the positions held by her opponent for political Office and by herself.
3. according to the passage， collecting life stories can be auseful methodology BECause
（a） life stories provide deeper insights into a culture than the hypothesizing of academics who are not members of that culture
（b） life stories can be collected easily and they are not subject to invalid interpretations
（c） ethnologists have a limited number of research methods from which to choose
（d） life stories make it easy to distinguish between the important and unimportant features of a culture
（e） the collection of life stories does not require a culturally knowledgeable investigator
4. information in the passage suggests that which ofthe following may be a possible way to eliminatebias in the editing of life stories？
（a） basing all inferences made about the culture on an ethnological theory
（b） eliminating all of the emotion-laden information reported by the informant
（c） translating the informant‘s words into the researcher’s language
（d） reducing the number of questions and carefully specifying the content of the questions that the investigator can ask the informant
（e） reporting all of the information that the informant provides regardless of the investigator‘s personal opinion about its intrinsic value
5. the primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
（a） question an explanation
（b） correct a misconception
（c） critique a methodology
（d） discredit an idea
（e） clarify an ambiguity
6. it can be inferred from the passage that a characteristicof the ethnological research on native americansconducted during the nineteenth century was the useof which of the following？
（a） investigators familiar with the culture under study
（b） a language other than the informant‘s for recording life stories
（c） life stories as the ethnologist‘s primary source of information
（d） complete transcriptions of informants‘ descriptions of tribal beliefs
（e） stringent guidelines for the preservation of cultural data
7. the passage mentions which of the following as a factor that can affect the accuracy of ethnologists‘transcriptions of life stories？
（a） the informants‘ social standing within the culture
（b） the inclusiveness of the theory that provided the basis for the research
（c） the length of time the researchers spent in the culture under study
（d） the number of life stories collected by the researchers
（e） the verifiability of the information provided by the research informants
8. it can be inferred from the passage that the author wouldbe most likely to agree with which of the followingstatements about the usefulness of life stories as a sourceof ethnographic information？
（a） they can be a source of information about how people in a culture view the world.
（b） they are most useful as a source of linguistic information.
（c） they require editing and interpretation before they can be useful.
（d） they are most useful as a source of information about ancestry.
（e） they provide incidental information rather than significant insights into a way of life.
passage 24
all of the cells in a particular plant start out with thesame complement of genes. how then can these cellsdifferentiate and form structures as different as roots，stems， leaves， and fruits？ the answer is that only a（5） small subset of the genes in a particular kind of cell areexpressed， or turned on， at a given time. this is accom-plished by a complex system of chemical messengersthat in plants include hormones and other regulatorymolecules. five major hormones have been identified：（10） auxin， abscisic acid， cytokinin， ethylene， and gibberel-lin. studies of plants have now identified a new class ofregulatory molecules called oligosaccharins.
unlike the oligosaccharins， the five well-known planthormones are pleiotropic rather than specific， that is，（15） each has more than one effect on the growth and devel-opment of plants. the five has so many simultaneouseffects that they are not very useful in artificiallycontrolling the growth of crops. auxin， for instance，stimulates the rate of cell elongation， causes shoots to（20） grow up and roots to grow down， and inhibits thegrowth of lateral shoots. auxin also causes the plant todevelop a vascular system， to form lateral roots， and toproduce ethylene.
the pleiotropy of the five well-studied plant（25） hormones is somewhat analogous to that of certain hormones in animal. for example， hormones from thehypothalamus in the brain stimulate the anterior lobeof the pituitary gland to synthesize and release manydifferent hormones， one of which stimulates the release（30） of hormones from the adrenal cortex. these hormones have specific effects on target organs all over the body.one hormone stimulates the thyroid gland， forexample， another the ovarian follicle cells， and so forth.in other words， there is a hierarchy of hormones.（35）such a hierarchy may also exist in plants. oligosac-charins are fragments of the cell wall released byenzymes： different enzymes release different oligosac- charins. there are indications that pleiotropic plant hormones may actually function by activating the（40） enzymes that release these other， more specific chemical messengers from the cell wall.
1. according to the passage， the five well-known planthormones are not useful in controlling the growth of crops because
（a） it is not known exactly what functions the hormones perform
（b） each hormone has various effects on plants
（c） none of the hormones can function without the others
（d） each hormone has different effects on different kinds of plants
（e） each hormone works on only a small subset of a cell‘s genes at any particular time
2. the passage suggests that the place of hypothalamichormones in the hormonal hierarchies of animals issimilar to the place of which of the following in plants？
（a） plant cell walls
（b） the complement of genes in each plant cell
（c） a subset of a plant cell‘s gene complement
（d） the five major hormones
（e） the oligosaccharins
3. the passage suggests that which of the following is a function likely to be performed by an oligosaccharin？
（a） to stimulate a particular plant cell to become part of a plant‘s root system
（b） to stimulate the walls of a particular cell to produce other oligosaccharins
（c） to activate enzymes that release specific chemical messengers from plant cell walls
（d） to duplicate the gene complement in a particular plant cell
（e） to produce multiple effects on a particular subsystem of plant cells
4. the author mentions specific effects that auxin has onplant development in order to illustrate the
（a） point that some of the effects of plant hormones can be harmful
（b） way in which hormones are produced by plants
（c） hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant hormones
（d） differences among the best-known plant hormones
（e） concept of pleiotropy as it is exhibited by plant hormones
5. according to the passage， which of the following bestdescribes a function performed by oligosaccharins？
（a） regulating the daily functioning of a plant‘s cells
（b） interacting with one another to produce different chemicals
（c） releasing specific chemical messengers from a plant‘s cell walls
（d） producing the hormones that cause plant cells to differentiate to perform different functions
（e） influencing the development of a plant‘s cells by controlling the expression of the cells’genes
6. the passage suggests that， unlike the pleiotropichormones， oligosaccharins could be used effectivelyto
（a） trace the passage of chemicals through the walls of cells
（b） pinpoint functions of other plant hormones
（c） artificially control specific aspects of the development of crops
（d） alter the complement of genes in the cells of plants
（e） alter the effects of the five major hormones on plant development
7. the author discusses animal hormones primarily inorder to
（a） introduce the idea of a hierarchy of hormones
（b） explain the effects that auxin has on plant cells
（c） contrast the functioning of plant hormones and animals hormones
（d） illustrate the way in which particular hormones affect animals
（e） explain the distinction between hormones and regulatory molecules
passage 25
in 1977 the prestigious ewha women‘s university inseoul， korea， announced the opening of the firstwomen’s studies program in asia. few academicprograms have ever received such public attention. in（5） broadcast debates， critics dismissed the program as abetrayal of national identity， an imitation of westernideas， and a distraction from the real task of nationalunification and economic development. even supporterSUNderestimated the program ； they thought it would be（10） merely another of the many western ideas that hadalready proved useful in asian culture， akin to airlines，electricity， and the assembly line. the founders of theprogram， however， realized that neither view wascorrect. they had some reservations about the appli-（15） cability of western feminist theories to the role ofwomen in asia and felt that such theories should beclosely examined. their approach has thus far yieldedimportant critiques of western theory， informed by thespecial experience of asian women.
（20）for instance， like the western feminist critique of thefreudian model of the human psyche， the korean critique finds freudian theory culture-bound， but inways different from those cited by western theorists.the korean theorists claim that freudian theory（25） assumes the universality of the western nuclear， male-headed family and focuses on the personality formationof the individual， independent of society， an analysisbased on such assumptions could be valid for a highlycompetitive， individualistic society. in the freudian（30） family drama， family members are assumed to beengaged in a darwinian struggle against each other-father against son and sibling against sibling. such aconcept of projects the competitive model of westernsociety onto human personalities. but in the asian（35） concept of personality there is no ideal attached to individualism or to the independent self. the western modelof personality development does not explain major char-acteristics of the korean personality， which is social andgroup-centered. the “self” is a social being defined by（40） and acting in a group， and the well-being of both menand women is determined by the equilibrium of thegroup， not by individual self-assertion. the ideal is oneof interdependency.
in such a context， what is recognized as “depen-（45） dency” in western psychiatric terms is not， in koreanterms， an admission of weakness or failure. all this bearsdirectly on the asian perception of men‘s and women’spsychology because men are also “ dependent”， inkorean culture， men cry and otherwise easily show their（50） emotions， something that might be considered a betrayalof masculinity in western culture. in the kinship-basedsociety of korea， four generations may live in the samehouse， which means that people can be sons and daugh-ters all their lives， whereas in western culture， the rolesof husband and son， wife and daughter， are often incom-patible.
1. which of the following best summarizes the content ofthe passage？
（a） a critique of a particular women‘s studies program
（b） a report of work in social theory done by a particular women‘s studies program
（c） an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a particular women‘s studies program
（d） an analysis of the philosophy underlying women‘s studies programs
（e） an abbreviated history of korean women‘s studies programs
2. it can be inferred from the passage that koreanscholars in the field of women‘s studies undertookan analysis of freudian theory as a response towhich of the following？
（a） attacks by critics of the ewha women‘s studies program
（b） the superficiality of earlier critiques of freudian theory
（c） the popularity of freud in korean psychiatric circles
（d） their desire to encourage korean scholars to adopt the freudian model
（e） their assessment of the relevance and limitations of western feminist theory with respect to korean culture
3. which of the following conclusions about theintroduction of western ideas to korean society can besupported by information contained in the passage？
（a） except for technological innovations， few western ideas have been successfully transplanted into korean society.
（b） the introduction of western ideas to korean society is viewed by some koreans as a challenge to korean identity.
（c） the development of the korean economy depends heavily on the development of new academic programs modeled after western programs.
（d） the extent to which western ideas must be adapted for acceptance by korean society is minimal.
（e） the introduction of western ideas to korean society accelerated after 1977.
4. it can be inferred from the passage that the broadcastmedia in korea considered the establishment of theewha women‘s studies program
（a） praiseworthy
（b） insignificant
（c） newsworthy
（d） imitative
（e） incomprehensible
5. it can be inferred from the passage that the positiontaken by some of the supporters of the ewha women‘sstudies program was problematic to the founders of theprogram because those supporters
（a） assumed that the program would be based on the uncritical adoption of western theory
（b） failed to show concern for the issues of national unification and economic development
（c） were unfamiliar with western feminist theory
（d） were not themselves scholars in the field of women‘s studies
（e） accepted the universality of freudian theory
6. which of the following statements is most consistent with the view of personality development held by the ewha women‘s studies group？
（a） personality development occurs in identifiable stages， beginning with dependency in childhood and ending with independence in adulthood.
（b） any theory of personality development， in order to be valid， must be universal.
（c） personality development is influenced by the characteristics of the society in which a person lives.
（d） personality development is hindered if a person is not permitted to be independent.
（e） no theory of personality development can account for the differences between korean and western culture.
7. which of the following statements about the western feminist critique of freudian theory can be supported by information contained in the passage？
（a） it recognizes the influence of western culture on freudian theory.
（b） it was written after 1977.
（c） it acknowledges the universality of the nuclear，male-headed family.
（d） it challenges freud‘s analysis of the role of daughters in western society.
（e） it fails to address the issue of competitiveness in western society.
8. according to the passage， critics of the ewha women‘sstudies program cited the program as a threat to whichof the following？
ⅰ. national identity
ⅱ. national unification
ⅲ. economic development
ⅳ.family integrity
（a） ⅰ only
（b） ⅰ and ⅱ only
（c） ⅰ，ⅱ，and ⅲ only
（d） ⅱ， ⅲ， and ⅳ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ，ⅲ， and ⅳ
passage 26
in choosing a method for determining climatic condi-tions that existed in the past， paleoclimatologists invokefour principal criteria. first， the material——rocks， lakes，vegetation， etc-on which the method relies must be（5） widespread enough to provide plenty of information，since analysis of material that is rarely encountered willnot permit correlation with other regions or with otherperiods of geological history. second， in the process offormation， the material must have received an environ-（10） mental signal that reflects a change in climate and thatcan be deciphered by modern physical or chemicalmeans. third， at least some of the material must haveretained the signal unaffected by subsequent changes inthe environment. fourth， it must be possible to deter-（15） mine the time at which the inferred climatic conditionsheld. this last criterion is more easily met in datingmarine sediments， because dating of only a smallnumber of layers in a marine sequence allows the age ofother layers to be estimated fairly reliably by extrapola-（20） tion and interpolation. by contrast， because sedimenta-tion is much less continuous in continental regions， esti-mating the age of a continental bed from the knownages of beds above and below is more risky.
one very old method used in the investigation of past（25） climatic conditions involves the measurement of waterlevels in ancient lakes. in temperate regions， there areenough lakes for correlations between them to give us areliable picture. in arid and semiarid regions， on theother hand， the small number of lakes and the great（30） distances between them reduce the possibilities for corre-lation. moreover， since lake levels are controlled by ratesof evaporation as well as by precipitation， the interpreta-tion of such levels is ambiguous. for instance， the factthat lake levels in the semiarid southwestern united（35） states appear to have been higher during the last ice agethan they are now was at one time attributed toincreased precipitation. on the basis of snow-line eleva-tions， however， it has been concluded that the climatethen was not necessarily wetter than it is now， but rather（40） that both summers and winters were cooler， resulting in reduced evaporation.
another problematic method is to reconstruct formerclimates on the basis of pollen profiles. the type of vege-tation in a specific region is determined by identifying（45） and counting the various pollen grains found there.although the relationship between vegetation andclimate is not as direct as the relationship betweenclimate and lake levels， the method often works well inthe temperate zones. in arid and semiarid regions in（50） which there is not much vegetation， however， smallchanges in one or a few plant types can change thepicture dramatically， making accurate correlations between neighboring areas difficult to obtain.
1. which of the following statements about thedifference between marine and continentalsedimentation is supported by information in thepassage？
（a） data provided by dating marine sedimentation is more consistent with researchers‘ findings in other disciplines than is data provided by dating continental sedimentation.
（b） it is easier to estimate the age of a layer in a sequence of continental sedimentation than it is to estimate the age of a layer in a sequence of marine sedimentation.
（c） marine sedimentation is much less widespread than continental sedimentation.
（d） researchers are more often forced to rely on extrapolation when dating a layer of marine sedimentation than when dating a layer of continental sedimentation.
（e） marine sedimentation is much more continuous than is continental sedimentation.
2. which of the following statements best describes the organization of the passage as a whole？
（a） the author describes a method for determining past climatic conditions and then offers specific examples of situations in which it has been used.
（b） the author discusses the method of dating marine and continental sequences and then explains how dating is more difficult with lake levels than with pollen profiles.
（c） the author describes the common requirements of methods for determining past climatic conditionsand then discusses examples of such methods.
（d） the author describes various ways of choosing a material for determining past climatic conditions and then discusses how two such methods have yielded contradictory data.
（e） the author describes how methods for determining past climatic conditions were first developed and then describes two of the earliest known methods.
3. it can be inferred from the passage thatpaleoclimatologists have concluded which of thefollowing on the basis of their study of snow-lineelevations in the southwestern united states？
（a） there is usually more precipitation during an ice age because of increased amounts of evaporation.
（b） there was less precipitation during the last ice age than there is today.
（c） lake levels in the semiarid southwestern united states were lower during the last ice age than they are today.
（d） during the last ice age， cooler weather led to lower lake levels than paleoclimatologists had previously assumed.
（e） the high lake levels during the last ice age may have been a result of less evaporation rather than more precipitation.
4. which of the following would be the most likely topic for a paragraph that logically continues the passage？
（a） the kinds of plants normally found in arid regions
（b） the effect of variation in lake levels on pollen distribution
（c） the material best suited to preserving signals of climatic changes
（d） other criteria invoked by paleoclimatologists when choosing a method to determine past climatic conditions
（e） a third method for investigating past climatic conditions
5. the author discusses lake levels in the southwesternunited states in order to
（a） illustrate the mechanics of the relationship between lake level， evaporation， and precipitation
（b） provide an example of the uncertainty involved in interpreting lake levels
（c） prove that there are not enough ancient lakes with which to make accurate correlations
（d） explain the effects of increased rates of evaporation on levels of precipitation
（e） suggest that snow-line elevations are invariably more accurate than lake levels in determining rates of precipitation at various points in the past
6. it can be inferred from the passage that anenvironmental signal found in geological materialwould not be useful to paleoclimatologists if it
（a） had to be interpreted by modern chemical means
（b） reflected a change in climate rather than a long-term climatic condition
（c） was incorporated into a material as the material was forming
（d） also reflected subsequent environmental changes
（e） was contained in a continental rather than a marine sequence
7. according to the passage， the material used to determinepast climatic conditions must be widespread for which of the following reasons？
ⅰ.paleoclimatologists need to make comparisons between periods of geological history.
ⅱ. paleoclimatologists need to compare materials that have supported a wide variety of vegetation.
ⅲ. paleoclimatologists need to make comparisons with data collected in other regions.
（a） ⅰ only
（b） ⅱ only
（c） ⅰ and ⅱ only
（d） ⅰ and ⅲ only
（e） ⅱ and ⅲ only
8. which of the following can be inferred from the passageabout the study of past climates in arid and semiaridregions？
（a） it is sometimes more difficult to determine pastclimatic conditions in arid and semiarid regions thanin temperate regions.
（b） although in the past more research has been done on temperate regions， paleoclimatologists have recently turned their attention to arid and semiarid regions.
（c） although more information about past climates can be gathered in arid and semiarid than in temperate regions， dating this information is more difficult.
（d） it is difficult to study the climatic history of arid and semiarid regions because their climates have tended to vary more than those of temperate regions.
（e） the study of past climates in arid and semiarid regions has been neglected because temperate regions support a greater variety of plant and animal life.
passage 27
since the late 1970‘s， in the face of a severe loss ofmarket share in dozens of industries， manufacturers inthe united states have been trying to improve produc-tivity-and therefore enhance their international（5） competitiveness-through cost-cutting programs. （cost-cutting here is defined as raising labor output whileholding the amount of labor constant.） however， from1978 through 1982， productivity-the value of goodsmanufactured divided by the amount of labor input-（10） did not improve； and while the results were better in thebusiness upturn of the three years following， they ran 25percent lower than productivity improvements duringearlier， post-1945 upturns. at the same time， it became clear that the harder manufactures worked to imple-（15） ment cost-cutting， the more they lost their competitiveedge.
with this paradox in mind， i recently visited 25companies； it became clear to me that the cost-cuttingapproach to increasing productivity is fundamentally（20） flawed. manufacturing regularly observes a “40， 40， 20”rule. roughly 40 percent of any manufacturing-basedcompetitive advantage derives from long-term changesin manufacturing structure （decisions about the number， size， location， and capacity of facilities） and in approaches（25） to materials. another 40 percent comes from majorchanges in equipment and process technology. the final20 percent rests on implementing conventional cost-cutting. this rule does not imply that cost-cutting shouldnot be tried. the well-known tools of this approach-（30） including simplifying jobs and retraining employees towork smarter， not harder-do produce results. but thetools quickly reach the limits of what they cancontribute.
another problem is that the cost-cutting approach（35） hinders innovation and discourages creative people. asabernathy‘s study of automobile manufacturers hasshown， an industry can easily become prisoner of itsown investments in cost-cutting techniques， reducing itsability to develop new products. and managers under（40） pressure to maximize cost-cutting will resist innovationbecause they know that more fundamental changes inprocesses or systems will wreak havoc with the results onwhich they are measured. production managers havealways seen their job as one of minimizing costs and（45） maximizing output. this dimension of performance hasuntil recently sufficed as a basis of evaluation， but it hascreated a penny-pinching， mechanistic culture in mostfactories that has kept away creative managers.every company i know that has freed itself from the（50） paradox has done so， in part， by developing and imple-menting a manufacturing strategy. such a strategyfocuses on the manufacturing structure and on equip-ment and process technology. in one company a manu-facturing strategy that allowed different areas of the（55） factory to specialize in different markets replaced theconventional cost-cutting approach； within three yearsthe company regained its competitive advantage.together with such strategies， successful companies arealso encouraging managers to focus on a wider set ofobjectives besides cutting costs. there is hope for manufacturing， but it clearly rests on a different way ofmanaging.
1.the author of the passage is primarily concerned with
（a） summarizing a thesis
（b） recommending a different approach
（c） comparing points of view
（d） making a series of predictions
（e） describing a number of paradoxes
2. it can be inferred from the passage that the manufacturrsmentioned in line 2 expected that the measures theyimplemented would
（a） encourage innovation
（b） keep labor output constant
（c） increase their competitive advantage
（d） permit business upturns to be more easily predicted
（e） cause managers to focus on a wider set of objectives
3. the primary function of the first paragraph of the passage is to
（a） outline in brief the author‘s argument
（b） anticipate challenges to the prescriptions that follow
（c） clarify some disputed definitions of economic terms
（d） summarize a number of long-accepted explanations
（e） present a historical context for the author‘s observations
4. the author refers to abernathy‘s study （line 36） most probably in order to
（a） qualify an observation about one rule governing manufacturing
（b） address possible objections to a recommendation about improving manufacturing competitiveness
（c） support an earlier assertion about one method of increasing productivity
（d） suggest the centrality in the united states economy of a particular manufacturing industry
（e） given an example of research that has questioned the wisdom of revising a manufacturing strategy
5. the author‘s attitude toward the culture in most factoriesis best described as
（a） cautious
（b） critical
（c） disinterested
（d） respectful
（e） adulatory
6. in the passage，the author includes all of the following except
（a） personal observation
（b） a business principle
（c） a definition of productivity
（d） an example of a successful company
（e） an illustration of a process technology
7. the author suggests that implementing conventional cost-cutting as a way of increasing manufacturingcompetitiveness is a strategy that is
（a） flawed and ruinous
（b） shortsighted and difficult to sustain
（c） popular and easily accomplished
（d） useful but inadequate
（e） misunderstood but promising
passage 28
the settlement of the united states has occupiedtraditional historians since 1893 when frederick jacksonturner developed his frontier thesis， a thesis thatexplained american development in terms of westward（5） expansion. from the perspective of women‘s history，turner’s exclusively masculine assumptions constitute amajor drawback： his defenders and critics alike havereconstructed men‘s， not women’s， lives on the frontier.however， precisely because of this masculine orientation，（10）revising the frontier thesis by focusing on women‘sexperience introduces new themes into women’shistory-woman as lawmaker and entrepreneur-and，consequently， new interpretations of women‘s relation-ship to capital， labor， and statute.
（15）turner claimed that the frontier produced the indivi-dualism that is the hallmark of american culture， andthat this individualism in turn promoted democraticinstitutions and economic equality. he argued for thefrontier as an agent of social change. most novelists and（20） historians writing in the early to midtwentieth centurywho considered women in the west， when they consid-ered women at all， fell under turner‘s spell. in theirworks these authors tended to glorify women’s contribu-tions to frontier life. western women， in turnerian tradi-（25） tion， were a fiercely independent， capable， and durablelot， free from the constraints binding their eastern sisters.this interpretation implied that the west provided acongenial environment where women could aspire totheir own goals， free from constrictive stereotypes and（30） sexist attitudes. in turnerian terminology， the frontierhad furnished “a gate of escape from the bondage of thepast.”
by the middle of the twentieth century， the frontier thesis fell into disfavor among historians. later， reac-（35） tionist writers took the view that frontier women were lonely， displaced persons in a hostile milieu that intensi- fied the worst aspects of gender relations. the renais- sance of the feminist movement during the 1970‘s led to the stasist school， which sidestepped the good bad（40） dichotomy and argued that frontier women lived livessimilar to the live of women in the east. in one now-standard text， faragher demonstrated the persistence ofthe “cult of true womanhood” and the illusionary qual-ity of change on the westward journey. recently the（45） stasist position has been revised but not entirely discounted by new research.
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
（a） provide a framework within which the history ofwomen in nineteenth-century america can beorganized.
（b） discuss divergent interpretations of women‘s experience on the western frontier
（c） introduce a new hypothesis about women‘s experience in nineteenth-century america
（d） advocate an empirical approach to women‘s experience on the western frontier
（e） resolve ambiguities in several theories about women‘s experience on the western frontier
2. which of the following can be inferred about the novelists and historians mentioned in lines 19-20？
（a） they misunderstood the powerful influence of constrictive stereotypes on women in the east.
（b） they assumed that the frontier had offered more opportunities to women than had the east.
（c） they included accurate information about women‘s experiences on the frontier.
（d） they underestimated the endurance and fortitude of frontier women.
（e） they agreed with some of turner‘s assumptions about frontier women， but disagreed with other assumptions that he made.
3. which of the following， if true， would provideadditional evidence for the stasists‘ argument as it isdescribed in the passage？
（a） frontier women relied on smaller support groups of relatives and friends in the west than they had in the east.
（b） the urban frontier in the west offered more occupational opportunity than the agricultural frontier offered.
（c） women participated more fully in the economic decisions of the family group in the west than they had in the east.
（d） western women received financial compensation for labor that was comparable to what women received in the east.
（e） western women did not have an effect on divorce laws， but lawmakers in the west were moreresponsive to women‘s concerns than lawmakers inthe east were.
4. according to the passage， turner makes which of thefollowing connections in his frontier thesis？
ⅰ. a connection between american individualism andeconomic equality
ⅱ. a connection between geographical expansion andsocial change
ⅲ. a connection between social change and financialprosperity
（a） i only
（b） ⅱonly
（c） ⅲ only
（d） ⅰand ⅱ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ and ⅲ
5. it can be inferred that which of the following statementsis consistent with the reactionist position as it isdescribed in the passage？
（a） continuity， not change， marked women‘s lives as they moved from east to west.
（b） women‘s experience on the north american frontierhas not received enough attention from modernhistorians.
（c） despite its rigors， the frontier offered women opportunities that had not been available in the east.
（d） gender relations were more difficult for women in the west than they were in the east.
（e） women on the north american frontier adopted new roles while at the same time reaffirming traditional roles.
6. which of the following best describes the organizationof the passage？
（a） a current interpretation of a phenomenon is described and then ways in which it was developed are discussed.
（b） three theories are presented and then a new hypothesis that discounts those theories is described.
（c） an important theory and its effects are discussed and then ways in which it has been revised are described.
（d） a controversial theory is discussed and then viewpoints both for and against it are described.
（e） a phenomenon is described and then theories concerning its correctness are discussed.
7. which of the following is true of the stasist school as itis described in the passage？
（a） it provides new interpretations of women‘s relationship to work and the law.
（b） it resolves some of the ambiguities inherent in turnerian and reactionist thought.
（c） it has recently been discounted by new research gathered on women‘s experience.
（d） it avoids extreme positions taken by other writers on women‘s history.
（e） it was the first school of thought to suggest substantial revisions to the frontier thesis.
