passage 29
studies of the weddell seal in the laboratory havedescribed the physiological mechanisms that allow theseal to cope with the extreme oxygen deprivation thatoccurs during its longest dives， which can extend 500（5） meters below the ocean‘s surface and last for over 70minutes. recent field studies， however， suggest that during more typical dives in the wild， this seal’s physio-logical behavior is different.
in the laboratory， when the seal dives below the（10） surface of the water and stops breathing， its heart beats more slowly， requiring less oxygen， and its arteries BECome constricted， ensuring that the seal‘s blood remains concentrated near those organs most crucial to its ability to navigate underwater. the seal essentially（15） shuts off the flow of blood to other organs， which either stop functioning until the seal surfaces or switch to an anaerobic （oxygen-independent） metabolism. the latter results in the production of large amounts of lactic acidwhich can adversely affect the ph of the seal’s blood（20） but since the anaerobic metabolism occurs only in those tissues which have been isolated from the seal‘s blood supply， the lactic acid is released into the seal’s blood only after the seal surfaces， when the lungs， liver， and other organs quickly clear the acid from the seal‘s blood-（25） stream.
recent field studies， however， reveal that on dives inthe wild， the seal usually heads directly for its prey andreturns to the surface in less than twenty minutes. theabsence of high levels of lactic acid in the seal‘s blood（30） after such dives suggests that during them， the seal’sorgans do not resort to the anaerobic metabolismobserved in the laboratory， but are supplied with oxygenfrom the blood. the seal‘s longer excursions underwater，during which it appears to be either exploring distant（35） routes or evading a predator， do evoke the divingresponse seen in the laboratory. but why do the seal’slaboratory dives always evoke this response， regardlessof their length or depth？ some biologists speculate thatbecause in laboratory dives the seal is forcibly（40） submerged， it does not know how long it will remainunderwater and so prepares for the worst.
1. the passage provides information to support which ofthe following generalizations？
（a） observations of animals‘ physiological behavior in the wild are not reliable unless verified by laboratory studies.
（b） it is generally less difficult to observe the physiological behavior of an animal in the wild than in the laboratory.
（c） the level of lactic acid in an animal‘s blood is likelyto be higher when it is searching for prey than whenit s evading predators.
（d） the level of lactic acid in an animal‘s blood is likely to be lowest during those periods in which it experiences oxygen deprivation.
（e） the physiological behavior of animals in a laboratory setting is not always consistent with their physiological behavior in the wild.
2. it can be inferred from the passage that by describing theweddell seal as preparing “for the worst” （line 41）， biologists mean that it
（a） prepares to remain underwater for no longer than twenty minutes
（b） exhibits physiological behavior similar to that which characterizes dives in which it heads directly for its prey
（c） exhibits physiological behavior similar to that which characterizes its longest dives in the wild.
（d） begins to exhibit predatory behavior
（e） clears the lactic acid from its blood before attempting to dive
3. the passage suggests that during laboratory dives， the ph of the weddell seal‘s blood is not adversely affected by theproduction of lactic acid because
（a） only those organs that are essential to the seal‘s ability to navigate underwater revert to an anaerobic mechanism.
（b） the seal typically reverts to an anaerobic metabolism only at the very end of the dive
（c） organs that revert to an anaerobic metabolism aretemporarily isolated from the seal‘s bloodstream
（d） oxygen continues to be supplied to organs that clearlactic acid from the seal‘s bloodstream
（e） the seal remains submerged for only short periods of time
4. which of the following best summarizes the main point of the passage？
（a） recent field studies have indicated that descriptions of the physiological behavior of the weddell sealduring laboratory dives are not applicable to its mosttypical dives in the wild.
（b） the weddell seal has developed a number of uniquemechanisms that enable it to remain submerged at depths of up to 500 meters for up to 70 minutes.
（c） the results of recent field studies have made it necessary for biologists to revise previousperceptions of how the weddell seal behavesphysiologically during its longest dives in the wild.
（d） biologists speculate that laboratory studies of the physiological behavior of seals during dives lastingmore than twenty minutes would be more accurate ifthe seals were not forcibly submerged.
（e） how the weddell seal responds to oxygen deprivation during its longest dives appears to depend on whether the seal is searching for prey or avoiding predators during such dives.
5. according to the author， which of the following is trueof the laboratory studies mentioned in line 1 ？
（a） they fail to explain how the seal is able to tolerate the increased production of lactic acid by organs that revert to an anaerobic metabolism during its longest dives in the wild.
（b） they present an oversimplified account of mechanisms that the weddell seal relies on during its longest dives in the wild.
（c） they provide evidence that undermines the view that the weddell seal relies on an anaerobic metabolism during its most typical dives in the wild.
（d） they are based on the assumption that weddell seals rarely spend more than twenty minutes underwater on a typical dive in the wild.
（e） they provide an accurate account of the physiological behavior of weddell seals during those dives in the wild in which they are either evading predators or exploring distant routes.
6. the author cites which of the following as characteristic of the weddell seal‘s physiological behavior during dives observed in the laboratory？
ⅰ. a decrease in the rate at which the seal‘s heart beats
ⅱ. a constriction of the seal‘s arteries
ⅲ. a decrease in the levels of lactic acid in the seal‘s blood
ⅳ. a temporary halt in the functioning of certain organs
（a） ⅰand ⅲ only
（b） ⅱ and ⅳ only
（c） ⅱ and ⅲ only
（d） ⅰ，ⅱ， and ⅳ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅲ， and ⅳ only
7. the passage suggests that because weddell seals areforcibly submerged during laboratory dives， they do which of the following？
（a） exhibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of dives in the wild that last less than twenty minutes.
（b） exhibit the physiological responses that are characteristic of the longer dives they undertake in the wild.
（c） cope with oxygen deprivation less effectively than they do on typical dives in the wild.
（d） produce smaller amounts of lactic acid than they do on typical dives in the wild.
（e） navigate less effectively than they do on typical dives in the wild
passage 30
since the early 1970‘s， historians have begun todevote serious attention to the working class in theunited states. yet while we now have studies ofworking-class communities and culture， we know（5） remarkably little of worklessness. when historians havepaid any attention at all to unemployment， they havefocused on the GREat depression of the 1930’s. thenarrowness of this perspective ignores the pervasiverecessions and joblessness of the previous decades， as（10） alexander keyssar shows in his recent book. examiningthe period 1870-1920， keyssar concentrates on massa-chusetts， where the historical materials are particularlyrich， and the findings applicable to other industrialareas.
（15 ）the unemployment rates that keyssar calculates appear to be relatively modest， at least by great depression standards： during the worst years， in the 1870‘sand 1890’s， unemployment was around 15 percent. yetkeyssar rightly understands that a better way to（20） measure the impact of unemployment is to calculateunemployment frequencies-measuring the percentageof workers who experience any unemployment in thecourse of a year. given this perspective， joblessnesslooms much larger.
（25）keyssar also scrutinizes unemployment patterns according to skill level， ethnicity， race， age， class， andgender. he finds that rates of joblessness differedprimarily according to class： those in middle-class andwhite-collar occupations were far less likely to be unem-（30） ployed. yet the impact of unemployment on a specificclass was not always the same. even when dependent onthe same trade， adjoining communities could havedramatically different unemployment rates. keyssar usesthese differential rates to help explain a phenomenon（35） that has puzzled historians-the startlingly high rate ofgeographical mobility in the nineteenth-century unitedstates. but mobility was not the dominant working-classstrategy for coping with unemployment， nor was assis-tance from private charities or state agencies. self-help（40） and the help of kin got most workers through jobless spells.
while keyssar might have spent more time develop-ing the implications of his findings on joblessness for contemporary public policy， his study， in its thorough（45） research and creative use of quantitative and qualitative evidence， is a model of historical analysis.
1. the passage is primarily concerned with
（a） recommending a new course of investigation
（b） summarizing and assessing a study
（c） making distinctions among categories
（d） criticizing the current state of a field
（e） comparing and contrasting two methods for calculating data
2. the passage suggests that before the early 1970‘s， whichof the following was true of the study by historians ofthe working class in the united states？
（a） the study was infrequent or superficial， or both.
（b） the study was repeatedly criticized for its allegedlynarrow focus.
（c） the study relied more on qualitative than quantitative evidence.
（d） the study focused more on the working-classcommunity than on working-class culture.
（e） the study ignored working-class joblessness during the great depression.
3. according to the passage， which of the following is true of keyssar‘s findings concerning unemployment inmassachusetts？
（a） they tend to contradict earlier findings about such unemployment.
（b） they are possible because massachusetts has the most easily accessible historical records.
（c） they are the first to mention the existence of high rates of geographical mobility in the nineteenth century.
（d） they are relevant to a historical understanding of the nature of unemployment in other states.
（e） they have caused historians to reconsider the role of the working class during the great depression.
4. according to the passage， which of the following is trueof the unemployment rates mentioned in line 15
（a） they hovered， on average， around 15 percent during the period 1870-1920.
（b） they give less than a full sense of the impact of unemployment on working-class people.
（c） they overestimate the importance of middle class and white-collar unemployment.
（d） they have been considered by many historians to underestimate the extent of working-class unemployment.
（e） they are more open to question when calculated for years other than those of peak recession.
5. which of the following statements about the unemployment rate during the great depression can be inferred from the passage？
（a） it was sometimes higher than 15 percent.
（b） it has been analyzed seriously only since the early 1970‘s.
（c） it can be calculated more easily than can unemployment frequency.
（d） it was never as high as the rate during the 1870‘s.
（e） it has been shown by keyssar to be lower thanpreviously thought.
6. according to the passage， keyssar considers which of thefollowing to be among the important predictors of thelikelihood that a particular person would be unemployed inlate nineteenth-century massachusetts？
ⅰ. the person‘s class
ⅱ. where the person lived or worked
ⅲ. the person‘s age
（a） ⅰonly
（b） ⅱonly
（c） ⅰand ⅱ only
（d） ⅰand ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ， and ⅲ
7. the author views keyssar‘s study with
（a） impatient disapproval
（b） wary concern
（c） polite skepticism
（d） scrupulous neutrality
（e） qualified admiration
8. which of the following， if true，would most strongly support keyssar‘s findings as they are described by the author？
（a） boston， massachusetts， and quincy， massachusetts， adjoining communities， had a higher rate of unemployment for working-class people in 1870 than in 1890.
（b） white-collar professionals such as attorneys had as much trouble as day laborers in maintaining a steady level of employment throughout the period 1870-1920.
（c） working-class women living in cambridge， massachusetts， were more likely than working-classmen living in cambridge to be unemployed for someperiod of time during the year 1873.
（d） in the 1890‘s， shoe-factory workers moved away in large numbers from chelmsford， massachusetts， where shoe factories were being replaced by other industries， to adjoining west chelmsford， where the shoe industry flourished.
（e） in the late nineteenth century，workers of all classes in massachusetts were more likely than workers of allclasses in other states to move their place ofresidence from one location to another within thestate.
passage 31
the number of women directors appointed to corpo-rate boards in the united states has increased dramati-cally， but the ratio of female to male directors remains low. although pressure to recruit women directors，（5） unlike that to employ women in the general work force，does not derive from legislation， it is nevertheless real.
although small companies were the first to havewomen directors， large corporations currently have ahigher percentage of women on their boards. when the（10） chairs of these large corporations began recruiting women to serve on boards， they initially sought women who were chief executive Officers （ceo‘s） of large corpo- rations. however， such women ceo’s are still rare. in addition， the ideal of six ceo‘s （female or male ） serving（15）on the board of each of the largest corporations is realiz-able only if every ceo serves on six boards. this raisesthe specter of director overcommitment and the resultant dilution of contribution. consequently， the chairs nextsought women in business who had the equivalent of（20）ceo experience. however， since it is only recently thatlarge numbers of women have begun to rise in manage-ment， the chairs began to recruit women of high achieve-ment outside the business world. many such women arewell known for their contributions in government，（25）education， and the nonprofit sector. the fact that thewomen from these sectors who were appointed wereoften acquaintances of the boards’ chairs seems quitereasonable： chairs have always considered it importantfor directors to interact comfortably in the boardroom.30）although many successful women from outside thebusiness world are unknown to corporate leaders， thesewomen are particularly qualified to serve on boardsbecause of the changing nature of corporations. today acompany‘s ability to be responsive to the concerns of the35）community and the environment can influence thatcompany’s growth and survival. women are uniquelypositioned to be responsive to some of these concerns.although conditions have changed， it should be remem-bered that most directors of both sexes are over fifty（40） years old. women of that generation were often encour-aged to direct their attention toward efforts to improvethe community. this fact is reflected in the career devel-opment of most of the outstandingly successful womenof the generation now in their fifties， who currently serve（45） on corporate boards： 25 percent are in education and 22 percent are in government， law， and the nonprofitsector.
one organization of women directors is helping busi-ness become more responsive to the changing needs of（50）society by raising the level of corporate awareness aboutsocial issues， such as problems with the economy，government regulation， the aging population， and theenvironment. this organization also serves as a resourcecenter of information on accomplished women who are（55） potential candidates for corporate boards.
1. the author of the passage would be most likely to agreewith which of the following statements aboutachievement of the “ideal” mentioned in line 14？
（a） it has only recently become a possibility.
（b） it would be easier to meet if more ceo‘s were women
（c） it is very close to being a reality for most corporate boards.
（d） it might affect the quality of directors‘ service to corporations.
（e） it would be more realizable if ceo‘s had a more extensive range of business experience.
2. according to the passage， the pressure to appoint women to corporate boards differs from the pressure toemploy women in the work force in which of thefollowing ways？
（a） corporate boards are under less pressure because they have such a small number of openings.
（b） corporate boards have received less pressure from stockholders， consumers， and workers within companies to include women on their boards.
（c） corporate boards have received less pressure from the media and the public to include women on their boards.
（d） corporations have only recently been pressured toinclude women on their boards.
（e） corporations are not subject to statutory penalty forfailing to include women on their boards.
3. all of the following are examples of issues that theorganization described in the last paragraph would belikely to advise corporations on except
（a） long-term inflation
（b） health and safety regulations
（c） retirement and pension programs
（d） the energy shortage
（e） how to develop new markets
4. it can be inferred from the passage that， when seeking toappoint new members to a corporation‘s board， the chairtraditionally looked for candidates who
（a） had legal and governmental experience
（b） had experience dealing with community affairs
（c） could work easily with other members of the board
（d） were already involved in establishing policy for that corporation
（e） had influential connections outside the business world
5. according to the passage， which of the following is true about women outside the business world who arecurrently serving on corporate boards？
（a） most do not serve on more than one board.
（b） a large percentage will eventually work on the staff of corporations.
（c） most were already known to the chairs of the board to which they were appointed.
（d） a larger percentage are from government and law than are from the nonprofit sector.
（e） most are less than fifty years old.
6. the passage suggests that corporations of the past differfrom modern corporations in which of the followingways？
（a） corporations had greater input on government policies affecting the business community.
（b） corporations were less responsive to the financial needs of their employees.
（c） the ability of a corporation to keep up with changing markets was not a crucial factor in its success.
（d） a corporation‘s effectiveness in coping with community needs was less likely to affect its growth and prosperity.
（e） corporations were subject to more stringent government regulations.
7. which of the following best describes the organizationof the passage？
（a） a problem is described， and then reasons why various proposed solutions succeeded or failed are discussed.
（b） a problem is described， and then an advantage of resolving it is offered.
（c） a problem is described， and then reasons for its continuing existence are summarized.
（d） the historical origins of a problem are described， and then various measures that have successfully resolved it are discussed.
（e） the causes of a problem are described， and then its effects are discussed.
8. it can be inferred from the passage that factors makingwomen uniquely valuable members of modern corporateboards would include which of the following？
ⅰ. the nature of modern corporations
ⅱ. the increased number of women ceo‘s
ⅲ. the careers pursued by women currently available to serve on corporate boards
（a） ⅰonly
（b） ⅱonly
（c） ⅲ only
（d） ⅰand ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ， and ⅲ
passage 32
increasingly， historians are blaming diseases importedfrom the old world for the staggering disparity betweenthe indigenous population of america in 1492-new esti-mates of which soar as high as 100 million， or approxi-（5）mately one-sixth of the human race at that time-andthe few million full-blooded native americans alive atthe end of the nineteenth century. there is no doubt thatchronic disease was an important factor in the precipi-tous decline， and it is highly probable that the greatest（10） killer was epidemic disease， especially as manifested in virgin-soil epidemics.
virgin-soil epidemics are those in which the popula-tions at risk have had no previous contact with the diseases that strike them and are therefore immunologi-（15）cally almost defenseless. that virgin-soil epidemics were important in american history is strongly indicated by evidence that a number of dangerous maladies-small-pox， measles， malaria， yellow fever， and undoubtedly several more-were unknown in the pre-columbian（20）new world. the effects of their sudden introduction are demonstrated in the early chronicles of america， which contain reports of horrendous epidemics and steep population declines， confirmed in many cases by recent quantitative analyses of spanish tribute records and（25） other sources. the evidence provided by the documents of british and french colonies is not as definitive because the conquerors of those areas did not establish permanent settlements and begin to keep continuous records until the seventeenth century， by which time the（30）worst epidemics had probably already taken place. furthermore， the british tended to drive the native populations away，rather than enslaving them as the spaniards did， so that the epidemics of british america occurred beyond the range of colonists‘ direct（35） observation.
even so， the surviving records of north america do contain references to deadly epidemics among the indige-nous population. in 1616-1619 an epidemic， possibly of bubonic or pneumonic plague， swept coastal new（40） england， killing as many as nine out of ten. during the 1630‘s smallpox， the disease most fatal to the native american people， eliminated half the population of the huron and iroquois confederations. in the 1820’s fever devastated the people of the columbia river area，（45） killing eight out of ten of them.
unfortunately， the documentation of these and other epidemics is slight and frequently unreliable， and it is ecessary to supplement what little we do know with evidence from recent epidemics among native ameri-（50） cans. for example， in 1952 an outbreak of measles among the native american inhabitants of ungava bay. quebec， affected 99 percent of the population and killed 7 percent， even though some had the benefit of modern medicine. cases such as this demonstrate that even（55） diseases that are not normally fatal can have devastating consequences when they strike an immunologically defenseless community.
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
（a） refute a common misconception
（b） provide support for a hypothesis
（c） analyze an argument
（d） suggest a solution to a dilemma
（e） reconcile opposing viewpoints
2. according to the passage， virgin-soil epidemics can be distinguished from other catastrophic outbreaks ofdisease in that virgin-soil epidemics
（a） recur more frequently than other chronic diseases
（b） affect a minimum of one-half of a given population
（c） involve populations with no prior exposure to a disease
（d） usually involve a number of interacting diseases
（e） are less responsive to medical treatment than are other diseases
3. according to the passage， the british colonists wereunlike the spanish colonists in that the british colonists
（a） collected tribute from the native population
（b） kept records from a very early date
（c） drove native americans off the land
（d） were unable to provide medical care against epidemic disease
（e） enslaved the native populations in america
4. which of the following can be inferred from the passageconcerning spanish tribute records？
（a） they mention only epidemics of smallpox.
（b） they were instituted in 1492.
（c） they were being kept prior to the seventeenth century.
（d） they provide quantitative and qualitative evidence about native american populations.
（e） they prove that certain diseases were unknown in the pre-columbian new world.
5. the author implies which of the following about measles？
（a） it is not usually a fatal disease.
（b） it ceased to be a problem by the seventeenth century.
（c） it is the disease most commonly involved in virgin-soil epidemics.
（d） it was not a significant problem in spanish colonies.
（e） it affects only those who are immunologically defenseless against it.
6. which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the native american inhabitants of ungava bay？
（a） they were almost all killed by the 1952 epidemic.
（b） they were immunologically defenseless against measles.
（c） they were the last native people to be struck by a virgin- soil epidemic.
（d） they did not come into frequent contact with white americans until the twentieth century.
（e） they had been inoculated against measles.
7. the author mentions the 1952 measles outbreak mostprobably in order to
（a） demonstrate the impact of modern medicine on epidemic disease
（b） corroborate the documentary evidence of epidemic disease in colonial america
（c） refute allegations of unreliability made against the historical record of colonial america
（d） advocate new research into the continuing problem of epidemic disease
（e） challenge assumptions about how the statistical evidence of epidemics should be interpreted
8. which of the following， if newly discovered， would most seriously weaken the author‘s argument concerning the importance of virgin-soil epidemics in the depopulation of native americans？
（a） evidence setting the pre-columbian population of the new world at only 80 million
（b） spanish tribute records showing periodic population fluctuations
（c） documents detailing sophisticated native american medical procedures
（d） fossils indicating native american cortact with smallpox prior to 1492
（e） remains of french settlements dating back to the sixteenth century
passage 33
until recently most astronomers believed that thespace between the galaxies in our universe was a near-perfect vacuum. this orthodox view of the universe is now being challenged by astronomers who believe that a（5） heavy “rain” of gas is falling into many galaxies fromthe supposedly empty space around them. the gas apparently condenses into a collection of small stars，each a little larger than the planet jupiter. these stars vastly outnumber the other stars in a given galaxy. the（10） amount of “intergalactic rainfall” into some of these galaxies has been enough to double their mass in the time since they formed. scientists have begun to suspect that this intergalactic gas is probably a mixture of gases left over from the “big bang” when the galaxies were（15） formed and gas was forced out of galaxies by supernova explosions.
it is well known that when gas is cooled at a constantpressure its volume decreases. thus， the physicist fabianreasoned that as intergalactic gas cools， the cooler gas（20） shrinks inward toward the center of the galaxy. mean-while its place is taken by hotter intergalactic gas fromfarther out on the edge of the galaxy， which cools as it iscompressed and flows into the galaxy. the net result is acontinuous flow of gas， starting as hot gases in inter-（25） galactic space and ending as a drizzle of cool gas called a “cooling flow，” falling into the central galaxy.
a fairly heretical idea in the 1970‘s， the cooling-flow theory gained support when fabian observed a cluster of galaxies in the constellation perseus and found the（30） central galaxy， ngc 1275， to be a strange-looking object with irregular， thin strands of gas radiating from it.
according to previous speculation， these strands were gases that had been blown out by an explosion in the galaxy. fabian， however， disagreed. because the strands（35） of gas radiating from ngc 1275 are visible in opticalphotographs， fabian suggested that such strands consistednot of gas blown out of the galaxy but of cooling flowsof gas streaming inward. he noted that the wavelengthsof the radiation emitted by a gas would changes as the（40） gas cooled， so that as the gas flowed into the galaxy andbecame cooler， it would emit not x-rays， but visible light，like that which was captured in the photographs. fabian‘shypothesis was supported by canizares’ determination in1982 that most of the gas in the perseus cluster was at a（45） temperature of 80 million degrees kelvin， whereas thegas immediately surrounding ngc 1275 （the subject ofthe photographs） was at one-tenth this temperature.
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
（a） illustrate a hypothesis about the origin of galaxies
（b） provide evidence to dispute an accepted theory about the evolution of galaxies
（c） summarize the state of and prospects for research in intergalactic astronomy
（d） report new data on the origins of intergalactic gas
（e） reconcile opposing views on the formation of intergalactic gas
2. the author uses the phrase “orthodox view of theuniverse” （line 3） to refer to the belief that
（a） the space between the galaxies is devoid of matter
（b） the space between galaxies is occupied by stars that cannot be detected by optical photographs
（c） galaxies have decreased in mass by half since their formation
（d） galaxies contain stars， each the size of jupiter， which form clusters
（e） galaxies are being penetrated by gas forced out of other galaxies by supernova explosions.
3. it can be inferred from the passage that， if fabian is correct， gas in the peripheral regions of a galaxy cluster
（a） streams outward into intergalactic space
（b） is hotter than gas in the central regions of the galaxy
（c） is composed primarily of gas left over from the big bang
（d） results in the creation of unusually large stars
（e） expands to increase the size of the galaxy
4. the author of the passage probably mentions canizares‘determination in order to
（a） clarify an ambiguity in fabian‘s research findings
（b） illustrate a generalization about the temperature of gas in a galaxy cluster
（c） introduce a new argument in support of the orthodox view of galaxies
（d） provide support for fabian‘s assertions about the perseus galaxies
（e） provide an alternate point of view concerning the movement of gas within a galaxy cluster
5. according to the passage， fabian believes that gasflowing into a central galaxy has which of the followingcharacteristics？
（a） it is one-tenth hotter than it was in the outer regions of the galaxy cluster.
（b） it emits radiation with wavelengths that change as the gas moves toward the center of the galaxy.
（c） the total amount of radiation emitted diminishes as the gas cools.
（d） it loses 90 percent of its energy as it moves to the center of the galaxy.
（e） it condenses at a rate much slower than the rate of decrease in temperature as the gas flows inward.
6. according to the passage， fabian‘s theory makes use of which of the following principles？
（a） gas emanating from an explosion will be hotter the more distant it is from the origin.
（b） the wavelength of radiation emitted by a gas as it cools remains constant.
（c） if pressure remains constant， the volume of a gas will decrease as it is cooled.
（d） the volume of a gas will increase as the pressure increases.
（e） as gas cools， its density decreases.
7. it can be inferred from the passage that which of thefollowing is true of fabian‘s theory？
（a） it did not receive approval until canizares‘ work was published.
（b） it was not widely accepted in the 1970‘s.
（c） it did not receive support initially because technology was not available to confirm its tenets.
（d） it supports earlier speculation that intergalactic gaswas largely the result of explosions outside thegalaxy.
（e） it was widely challenged until x-ray evidence of gas temperatures in ngc 1275 had been presented.
passage 35
it can be argued that much consumer dissatisfactionwith marketing strategies arises from an inability to aimadvertising at only the likely buyers of a given product.there are three groups of consumers who are affected（5） by the marketing process. first， there is the marketsegment-people who need the commodity in question.second， there is the program target-people in themarket segment with the “best fit” characteristics for aspecific product. lots of people may need trousers， but（10） only a few qualify as likely buyers of very expensivedesigner trousers. finally， there is the program audience―all people who are actually exposed to themarketing program without regard to whether they needor want the product.
（15） these three groups are rarely identical. an exceptionoccurs occasionally in cases where customers for aparticular industrial product may be few and easily iden-tifiable. such customers， all sharing a particular need，are likely to form a meaningful target， for example， all（20） companies with a particular application of the product in question， such as high-speed fillers of bottles at brew-eries. in such circumstances， direct selling （marketing that reaches only the program target） is likely to be economically justified， and highly specialized trade（25） media exist to expose members of the program target-and only members of the program target-to the marketing program.
most consumer-goods markets are significantly different. typically， there are many rather than few（30） potential customers. each represents a relatively small percentage of potential sales. rarely do members of a particular market segment group themselves neatly into a meaningful program target. there are substantial differences among consumers with similar demographic（35） characteristics. even with all the past decade‘s advances in information technology， direct selling of consumer goods is rare， and mass marketing-a marketing approach that aims at a wide audience-remains the only economically feasible mode. unfortunately， there（40） are few media that allow the marketer to direct a marketing program exclusively to the program target. inevitably，people get exposed to a great deal of marketing for products in which they have no interest and so they become annoyed.
1. the passage suggests which of the following about highly specialized trade media？
（a） they should be used only when direct selling is not economically feasible.
（b） they can be used to exclude from the program audience people who are not part of the program target.
（c） they are used only for very expensive products.
（d） they are rarely used in the implementation of marketing programs for industrial products.
（e） they are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate market segment.
2. according to the passage， most consumer-goods markets share which of the following characteristics？
ⅰ. customers who differ significantly from each other
ⅱ. large numbers of potential customers
ⅲ. customers who each represent a small percentage of potential sales
（a） ⅰ only
（b） ⅱ only
（c） ⅰ and ⅱ only
（d） ⅱ and ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ， and ⅲ
3. the passage suggests which of the following aboutdirect selling？
（a） it is used in the marketing of most industrial products.
（b） it is often used in cases where there is a large program target.
（c） it is not economically feasible for most marketing programs.
（d） it is used only for products for which there are many potential customers.
（e） it is less successful at directing a marketing program to the target audience than are other marketing approaches.
4. the author mentions “trousers” （lines 9 and 11） most likely in order to
（a） make a comparison between the program target and the program audience
（b） emphasize the similarities between the market segment and the program target
（c） provide an example of the way three groups of consumers are affected by a marketing program
（d） clarify the distinction between the market segment and the program target
（e） introduce the concept of the program audience
5. which of the following best exemplifies the situation described in the last two sentences of the passage？
（a） a product suitable for women age 21-30 is marketed at meetings attended only by potential customers.
（b） a company develops a new product and must develop an advertising campaign to create a market for it.
（c） an idea for a specialized product remainSUNexplored because media exposure of the productto its few potential customers would be tooexpensive.
（d） a new product is developed and marketers collect demographic data on potential consumers before developing a specific advertising campaign.
（e） a product suitable for men age 60 and over is advertised in a magazine read by adults of all ages.
6. the passage suggests that which of the following is true about the marketing of industrial products like thosediscussed in the third paragraph？
（a） the market segment and program target are identical.
（b） mass marketing is the only feasible way of advertising such products.
（c） the marketing program cannot be directed specifically to the program target.
（d） more customers would be needed to justify the expense of direct selling.
（e） the program audience would necessarily be made up of potential customers， regardless of the marketing approach that was used.
7. the passage supports which of the following statements about demographic characteristics and marketing？
（a） demographic research is of no use in determining how successful a product will be with a particular group of consumers.
（b） a program audience is usually composed of people with similar demographic characteristics.
（c） psychological factors are more important than demographic factors in defining a market segments.
（d） consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily form a meaningful program target.
（e） collecting demographic data is the first step that marketers take in designing a marketing program.
8. it can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true for most consumer-goods markets？
（a） the program audience is smaller than the market segment.
（b） the program audience and the market segment are usually identical.
（c） the market segment and the program target are usually identical.
（d） the program target is larger than the market segment.
（e） the program target and the program audience are not usually identical.
passage 36
protein synthesis begins when the gene encoding aprotein is activated. the gene‘s sequence of nucleotides istranscribed into a molecule of messenger rna （mrna），which reproduces the information contained in that（5） sequence. transported outside the nucleus to the cyto-plasm，the mrna is translated into the protein itencodes by an organelle known as a ribosome， which strings together amino acids in the order specified by thesequence of elements in the mrna molecule. since the（10）amount of mrna in a cell determines the amount of thecorresponding protein， factors affecting the abundance of mrna’s play a major part in the normal functioningof a cell by appropriately regulating protein synthesis.for example， an excess of certain proteins can cause cells（15） to proliferate abnormally and become cancerous； a lack of the protein insulin results in diabetes.
biologists once assumed that the variable rates at which cells synthesize different mrna‘s determine the quantities of mrna’s and their corresponding proteins（20） in a cell. however， recent investigations have shown that the concentrations of most mrna‘s correlate best， not with their synthesis rate， but rather with the equally vari-able rates at which cells degrade the different mrna’s in their cytoplasm. if a cell degrades both a rapidly and（25） a slowly synthesized mrna slowly， both mrna‘s will accumulate to high levels.
an important example of this phenomenon is the development of red blood cells from their unspecialized parent cells in bone marrow. for red blood cells to accu-（30）mulate sufficient concentrations of hemoglobin （which transports oxygen） to carry out their main function， the cells‘ parent cells must simultaneously produce more of the constituent proteins of hemoglobin and less of most other proteins. to do this， the parent cells halt synthesis（35） of nonhemoglobin mrna’s in the nucleus and rapidly degrade copies of the nonhemoglobin mrna‘s remaining in the cytoplasm. halting synthesis of mrna alone would not affect the quantities of proteins synthesized by the mrna’s still existing in the cytoplasm. biologists now（40） believe that most cells can regulate protein production most efficiently by varying both mrna synthesis and degradation， as developing red cells do， rather than by just varying one or the other.
1. the passage is primarily concerned with discussing the
（a） influence of mrna concentrations on the development of red blood cells
（b） role of the synthesis and degradation of mrna in cell functioning
（c） mechanism by which genes are transcribed into mrna
（d） differences in mrna concentrations in cell nuclei and in the cytoplasm
（e） way in which mrna synthesis contributes to the onset of diabetes
2. the passage suggests that a biologist who held the viewdescribed in the first sentence of the second paragraphwould most probably also have believed which of thefollowing？
（a） the rate of degradation of specific mrna‘s has little effect on protein concentrations.
（b） the rate of degradation of specific mrna‘s should be studied intensively.
（c） the rates of synthesis and degradation for any given mrna are normally equal.
（d） different mrna‘s undergo degradation at widely varying rates.
（e） most mrna‘s degrade very rpaidly.
3. which of the following best describes the relationshipbetween the second and third paragraphs of the passage？
（a） the second paragraph presents arguments in support of a new theory and the third paragraph presents arguments against that same theory.
（b） the second paragraph describes a traditional view and the third paragraph describes the view that has replaced it on the basis of recent investigations.
（c） the third paragraph describes a specific case of a phenomenon that is described generally in the second paragraph.
（d） the third paragraph describes an investigation that was undertaken to resolve problems raised by phenomena described in the second paragraph.
（e） both paragraphs describe in detail specific examples of the phenomenon that is introduced in the first paragraph.
4. the accumulation of concentrations of hemoglobin inred blood cells is mentioned in the passage as anexample of which of the following？
（a） the effectiveness of simultaneous variation of the rates of synthesis and degradation of mrna
（b） the role of the ribosome in enabling a parent cell to develop properly into a more specialized form
（c） the importance of activating the genes for particular proteins at the correct moment
（d） the abnormal proliferation of a protein that threatens to make the cell cancerous
（e） the kind of evidence that biologists relied on for support of a view of mrna synthesis that is now considered obsolete
5. to begin to control a disease caused by a proteindeficiency， the passage suggests that a promisingexperimental treatment would be to administer a drugthat would reduce
（a） only the degradation rate for the mrna of the protein involved
（b） only the synthesis rate for the mrna of the protein involved
（c） both the synthesis and degradation rates for the mrna of the protein involved
（d） the incidence of errors in the transcription of mrna‘s from genetic nucleotide sequences
（e） the rate of activity of ribosomes in the cytoplasm of most cells
6. according to the passage， which of the following best describes the current view on the relationship betweenthe synthesis and the degradation of mrna inregulating protein synthesis？
（a） biologists have recently become convinced that the ribosome controls the rates of synthesis and degradation of mrna.
（b） there is no consensus among biologists as to the significance of mrna degradation in regulating protein synthesis.
（c） the concept of mrna degradation is so new that most biologists still believe that the vital role in protein regulation belongs to mrna synthesis.
（d） degradation of mrna is now considered to be the key process and mrna synthesis is no longer believed to play a significant role.
（e） degradation of mrna is now considered to be as important as mrna synthesis has been， and still is，believed to be.
7. according to the passage， which of the following canhappen when protein synthesis is not appropriatelyregulated？
（a） diabetes can result from errors that occur when the ribosomes translate mrna into protein.
（b） cancer can result from an excess of certain proteins and diabetes can result from an insulin deficiency.
（c） a deficiency of red blood cells can occur if bone marrow cells produce too much hemoglobin.
（d） cancer can be caused by excessively rapid degradation of certain amino acids in the cytoplasm of cells.
（e） excessive synthesis of one protein can trigger increased degradation of mrna‘s for other proteinsand create severe protein iMBAlances.
8. the passage suggests that a biologist who detected high levels of two proteins in a certain type of cell would be likely to consider which of the following as a possibleexplanation？
（a） the rate of mrna degradation for one of the proteins increases as this type of cell develops a more specialized function.
（b） the two proteins are most likely constituents of a complex substance supporting the cells‘ specialized function.
（c） the cells are likely to proliferate abnormally and possibly become cancerous due to the levels of these proteins.
（d） the mrna‘s for both proteins are being degraded at a low rate in that type of cell.
（e） the mrna‘s for the two proteins are being synthesized at identical rates in that type of cell.
