passage 45
while there is no blueprint for transforming a largely government-controlled economy into a free one， theexperience of the united kingdom since 1979 clearlyshows one approach that works：privatization，in which（5） state-owned industries are sold to private companies. by1979，the total borrowings and losses of state-ownedindustries were running at about t3 billion a year. byselling many of these industries，the government has decreased these borrowings and losses，gained over t34（10）billion from the sales，and now receives tax revenues from the newly privatized companies. along with a dramatically improved overall economy，the government has been able to repay 12.5 percent of the net national debt over a two-year period.
（15） in fact，privatization has not only rescued individual industries and a whole economy headed for disaster， but has also raised the level of performance in every area. at british airways and british gas，for example， productivity per employee has risen by 20 percent. at associated（20）british ports，labor disruptions common in the 1970‘s and early 1980’s have now virtually disappeared. at british telecom，there is no longer a waiting list-as there always was before privatization-to have a telephone installed.part of this improved productivity has come about（25） BECause the employees of privatized industries were given the opportunity to buy shares in their own companies. they responded enthusiastically to the offer of shares；at british aerospace，89 percent of the eligible work force bought shares；at associated british ports， 90 percent；and at（30）british telecom，92 percent. when people have a personal stake in something， they think about it，care about it，work to make it prosper. at the national freight consortium，the new employee-owners GREw so concerned about their company‘s profits that during wage negotiations they（35） actually pressed their union to lower its wage demands.
some economists have suggested that giving away free shares would provide a needed acceleration of the privati-zation process. yet they miss thomas paine‘s point that“what we obtain too cheap we esteem too lightly.”in（40）order for the far-ranging benefits of individual ownership to be achieved by owners，companies，and countries，employees and other individuals must make their owndecisions to buy，and they must commit some of their ownresources to the choice.
1. according to the passage，all of the following were benefits of privatizing state-owned industries in the united kingdom except：
（a） privatized industries paid taxes to the government.
（b） the government gained revenue from selling state-owned industries.
（c） the government repaid some of its national debt.
（d） profits from industries that were still state-owned increased.
（e） total borrowings and losses of state-owned industries decreased.
2. according to the passage，which of the following resulted in increased productivity in companies thathave been privatized？
（a） a large number of employees chose to purchase shares in their companies.
（b） free shares were widely distributed to individual shareholders.
（c） the government ceased to regulate major industries.
（d） unions conducted wage negotiations for employees.
（e） employee-owners agreed to have their wages lowered.
3. it can be inferred from the passage that the author considers labor disruptions to be
（a） an inevitable problem in a weak national economy
（b） a positive sign of employee concern about a company
（c） a predictor of employee reactions to a company‘s offer to sell shares to them
（d） a phenomenon found more often in state-owned industries than in private companies
（e） a deterrence to high performance levels in an industry
4. the passage supports which of the following statements about employees buying shares in their own companies？
（a） at three different companies，approximately nine out of ten of the workers were eligible to buy shares in their companies.
（b） approximately 90% of the ellgible workers at three different companies chose o buy shares in their companies.
（c） the opportunity to buy shares was discouraged by at least some labor unions.
（d） companies that demonstrated the highest productivity were the first to allow their employees the opportunity to buy shares.
（e） eligibility to buy shares was contingent on employees‘ agreeing to increased work loads.
5. which of the following statements is most consistentwith the principle described in lines 30-32？
（a） a democratic government that decides it is inappropriate to own a particular industry has in no way abdicated its responsibilities as guardian of the public interest.
（b） the ideal way for a government to protect employee interests is to force companies to maintain their share of a competitive market without government subsidies.
（c） the failure to harness the power of self-interest is an important reason that state-owned industries perform poorly.
（d） governments that want to implement privatization programs must try to eliminate all resistance to the free-market system.
（e） the individual shareholder will reap only a minute share of the gains from whatever sacrifices he or she makes to achieve these gains.
6. which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the privatization process in the united kingdom？
（a） it depends to a potentially dangerous degree on individual ownership of shares.
（b） it conforms in its most general outlines to thomas palne‘s prescription for business ownership.
（c） it was originally conceived to include some giving away of free shares.
（d） it has been successful，even though privatization has failed in other countries.
（e） it is taking place more slowly than some economists suggest is necessary.
7. the quotation in line 39 is most probably used to
（a） counter a position that the author of the passage believes is incorrect
（b） state a solution to a problem described in the previous sentence
（c） show how opponents of the viewpoint of the author of the passage have supported their arguments
（d） point out a paradox contained in a controversial viewpoint
（e） present a historical maxim to challenge the principle introduced in the third paragraph
passage 46
as the economic role of multinational，global corpora-tions expands，the international economic environment willbe shaped increasingly not by governments or internationalinstitutions，but by the interaction between governments（5）and global corporations， especially in the united states，europe，and japan. a significant factor in this shiftingworld economy is the trend toward regional trading biocsof nations，which has a potentially large effect on theevolution of the world trading system. two examples of（10）this trend are the united states-canada free tradeagreement （fta）and europe 1992，the move by the european community （ec）to dismantle impediments tothe free flow of goods，services，capital，and labor amongmember states by the end of 1992. however， although（15） numerous political and economic factors were operative in launching the move to integrate the ec‘s markets，concern about protectionism within the ec does not appear to have been a major consideration. this is in sharp contrast to the fta，the overwhelming reason for that bilateral initiative（20）was fear of increasing united states protectionism. none-theless，although markedly different in origin and nature，both regional developments are highly significant in that they will foster integration in the two largest and richest markets of the world，as well as provoke questions（25）about the future direction of the world trading system.
1. the primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
（a） describe an initiative and propose its continuance
（b） chronicle a development and illustrate its inconsistencies
（c） identify a trend and suggest its importance
（d） summarize a process and question its significance
（e） report a phenomenon and outline its probable future
2. according to the passage，all of the following are elements of the shifting world economy except
（a） an alteration in the role played by governments
（b） an increase in interaction between national governments and international regulatory institutions
（c） an increase in the formation of multinational trading alliances
（d） an increase in integration in the two richest markets of the world
（e） a fear of increasing united states protectionism
3. the passage suggests which of the following about global corporations？
（a） their continued growth depends on the existence of a fully integrated international market.
（b） their potential effect on the world market is a matter of ongoing concern to international institutions.
（c） they will have to assume quasi-governmental functions if current economic trends continue.
（d） they have provided a model of economic success for regional trading blocs.
（e） their influence on world economics will continue to increase
4. according to the passage，one similarity between thefta and europe 1992 is that they both
（a） overcame concerns about the role of politics in the shifting world economy
（b） originated out of concern over unfair trade practices by other nations
（c） exemplify a trend toward regionalization of commercial markets.
（d） place the economic needs of the trading bloc ahead of those of the member nations
（e） help to ensure the continued economic viability of the world community
5. which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the european community prior to the adoption ofthe europe 1992 program？
（a） there were restrictions on commerce between the member nations.
（b） the economic policies of the member nations focused on global trading issues.
（c） there were few impediments to trade between the member nations and the united states.
（d） the flow of goods between the member nations and canada was insignificant.
（e） relations between multinational corporations and the governments of the member nations were strained.
6. the author discusses the fta and europe 1992 most likely in order to
（a） point out the similarities between two seemingly disparate trading alliances
（b） illustrate how different economic motivations produce different types of trading blocs
（c） provide contrasting examples of a trend that is influencing the world economy
（d） identify the most important characteristics of successful economic integration
（e） trace the history of regional trading blocs
7. which of the following best describes the organization of the passage？
（a） an argument is put forth and evidence for and against it given.
（b） an assertion is made and opposing evidence presented.
（c） two hypotheses are described and shown to inconsistent with one another.
（d） a phenomenon is identified and illustrations of this phenomenon offered.
（e） a specific case of a phenomenon is discussed a generalization drawn.
passage 47
in forces of production， david noble examines the transformation of the machine-tool industry as the industrymoved from reliance on skilled artisans to automation.
noble writes from a marxist perspective，and his central（5）argument is that management，in its decisions to automate，conspired against labor：the power that the skilled machin-ists wielded in the industry was intolerable to management.
noble fails to substantiate this claim， although his argu-ment is impressive when he applies the marxist concept of（10）“de-skilling”-the use of technology to replace skilled labor-to the automation of the machine-tool industry. in automating，the industry moved to computer-based， digi-talized “numerical-control”（n/c）technology， rather than to artisan-generated “record-playback”（r/p）technology.（15）although both systems reduced reliance on skilled labor，noble clearly prefers r/p，with its inherent acknowledg-ment of workers‘ skills：unlike n/c，its programs were produced not by engineers at their computers，but by skilled machinists，who recorded their own movements to（20）“teach” machines to duplicate those movements. however，noble’s only evidence of conspiracy is that， although the two approaches were roughly equal in technical merit，management chose n/c. from this he concludes that auto- mation is undertaken not because efficiency demands it or（25）scientific advances allow it，but because it is a tool in the ceaseless war of capitalists against labor.
1. the author of the passage is primarily concerned with
（a） reexamining a political position and defending its validity
（b） examining a management decision and defending its necessity
（c） analyzing a scholarly study and pointing out a central weakness
（d） explaining a trend in automation and warning about its dangers
（e） chronicling the history of an industry and criticizing its development
2. according to information in the passage， the term “de-skilling” refers to the
（a） loss of skills to industry when skilled workers are replaced by unskilled laborers
（b） substitution of mechanized processes for labor formerly performed by skilled workers
（c） labor theory that automation is technologically comparable to skilled labor
（d） process by which skilled machinists“teach” machines to perform certain tasks
（e） exclusion of skilled workers from participation in the development of automated technology
3. which of the following best characterizes the function of the second paragraph of the passage？
（a） it develops a topic introduced in the first paragraph.
（b） it provides evidence to refute a claim presented in the first paragraph.
（c） it gives examples of a phenomenon mentioned in the first paragraph.
（d） it presents a generalization about examples given in the first paragraph.
（e） it suggests two possible solutions to a problem presented in the first paragraph.
4. the passage suggests which of the following about n automation in the machine-tool industry？
（a） it displaced fewer skilled workers than r/p automation did.
（b） it could have been implemented either by experienced machinists or by computer engineers.
（c） it was designed without the active involvement skilled machinists.
（d） it was more difficult to design than r/p automation was.
（e） it was technically superior to r/p automation.
5. which of the following phrases most clearly reveals the attitude of the author of the passage toward noble‘s central argument？
（a） “conspired against”（line 6）
（b） “intolerable to management”（line 7）
（c） “impressive when he applies the marxist concept”（line 9）
（d） “clearly prefers”（line 16）
（e） “only evidence of conspiracy”（line 21）
6. the author of the passage commends noble‘s book for which of the following？
（a） concentrating on skilled as opposed to unskilled workers in its discussion of the machine-tool industry
（b） offering a generalization about the motives behind the machine-tool industry‘s decision to automate
（c） making an essential distinction between two kinds of technology employed in the machine-tool industry
（d） calling into question the notion that managers conspired against labor in the automation of the machine-tool industry
（e） applying the concept of de-skilling to the machine-tool industry
7. which of the following best characterizes forces of production as it is described in the passage？
（a） a comparison of two interpretations of how a particular industry evolved
（b） an examination of the origin of a particular concept in industrial economics
（c） a study that points out the weakness of a particular interpretation of an industrial phenomenon
（d） a history of a particular industry from an ideological point of view
（e） an attempt to relate an industrial phenomenon in one industry to a similar phenomenon in another industry
passage 48
the sensation of pain cannot accurately be described as“located” at the point of an injury，or，for that matter，in any one place in the nerves or brain. rather，pain signals-and pain relief-are delivered through a highly（5）complex interacting circuitry.
when a cell is injured， a rush of prostaglandin‘s sensitizes nerve endings at the injury. prostaglandins arechemicals produced in and released from virtually all mammalian cells when they are injured： these are the only（10） pain signals that do not originate in the nervous system.aspirin and other similar drugs （such as indomethacin andibuprofen） keep prostaglandins from being made by inter-fering with an enzyme known as prostaglandin synthetase，or cyclooxygenase. the drugs’ effectiveness against pain is（15）proportional to their success in blocking this enzyme at the site of injury.
from nerve endings at the injury， pain signais move to nerves feeding into the spinal cord. the long，tubular membranes of nerve cells carry electrical impulses. when（20）electrical impulses get to the spinal cord，a pain-signaling chemical known as substance p is released there.
substance p then excites nearby neurons to send impulses to the brain. local anesthetics such as novocaine and xylocaine work by blocking the electrical transmission（25）along nerves in a particular area. they inhibit the flow ofsodium ions through the membranes， making the nerves electrically quiescent； thus no pain signals are sent to thespinal cord or to the brain.
recent discoveries in the study of pain have involved（30）the brain itself-the supervising organ that notices pain signals and that sends messages down to the spinal cord to regulate incoming pain traffic. endorphins-the brain‘s own morphine-are a class of small peptides that help to block pain signals within the brain itself. the presence（35）of endorphins may also help to explain differences in response to pain signals， since individuals seem to differ in their ability to produce endorphins. it now appears that a number of techniques for blocking chronic pain-such as acupuncture and electrical stimulation of the central（40）brain stem-involve the release of endorphins in the brain and spinal cord.
1. the passage is primarily concerned with
（a） analyzing ways that enzymes and other chemicals influence how the body feels pain
（b） describing the presence of endorphins in the brain and discussing ways the body blocks pain within the brain itself.
（c） describing how pain signals are conveyed in the body and discussing ways in which the pain signals can be blocked
（d） demonstrating that pain can be influenced by acupuncture and electrical stimulation of the central brain stem.
（e） differentiating the kinds of pain that occur at different points in the body‘s nervous system.
2. according to the passage， which of the following is oneof the first things to occur when cells are injured？
（a） the flow of electrical impulses through nerve cells at the site of the injury is broken.
（b） the production of substance p traveling through nerve cells to the brain increases.
（c） endorphins begin to speed up the response of nerve cells at the site of the injury.
（d） a flood of prostaglandins sensitizes nerve endings at the site of the injury.
（e） nerve cells connected to the spinal cord become electrically quiescent.
3. of the following，which is most likely attributable to the effect of endorphins as described in the passage？
（a） after an injection of novocaine，a patient has no feeling in the area where the injection was given.
（b） after taking ibuprofen，a person with a headache gets quick relief.
（c） after receiving a local anesthetic，an injured person reports relief in the anestherized area.
（d） after being given aspirin，a child with a badly scraped elbow feels better.
（e） after acupuncture，a patient with chronic back pain reports that the pain is much less severe.
4. it can be inferred from the passage that if the prostaglandin synthetase is only partially blocked， whichof the following is likely to be true？
（a） some endorphins will be produced，and some pain signals will be intensified.
（b） some substance p is likely to be produced，so some pain signals will reach the brain.
（c） some sodium ions will be blocked，so some pain signals will not reach the brain.
（d） some prostaglandins will be produced，but production of substance p will be prevented.
（e） some peptides in the brain will receive pain signals and begin to regulate incoming pain traffic.
passage 49
traditionally， the first firm to commercialize a newtechnology has benefited from the unique opportunity toshape product definitions， forcing followers to adapt to a standard or invest in an unproven alternative. today， how-（ 5） ever， the largest payoffs may go to companies that lead indeveloping integrated approaches for successful massproduction and distribution.
producers of the beta format for videocassette recorders（vcr‘s），for example，were first to develop the vcr com-（10）mercially in 1975，but producers of the rival vhs （video home system）format proved to be more successful at forming strategic alliances with other producers and distributors to manufacture and market their vcr format seeking to maintain exclusive control over vcr distri-（15）bution. beta producers were reluctant to form such alli-ances and eventually lost ground to vhs in the compe-tition for the global vcr market.
despite beta‘s substantial technological head start and the fact that vhs was neither technically better nor cheaper（20）than beta，developers of vhs quickly turned a slight early lead in sales into a dominant position. strategic alignments with producers of prerecorded tapes reinforced the vhs advantage. the perception among consumers that prere-corded tapes were more available in vhs format further（25）expanded vhs’s share of the market. by the end of the 1980‘s. beta was no longer in production.
1. the passage is primarily concerned with which of the following？
（a） evaluating two competing technologies
（b） tracing the impact of a new technology by narrating a sequence of events
（c） reinterpreting an event from contemporary business history
（d） illustrating a business strategy by means of a case history
（e） proposing an innovative approach to business planning
2. according to the passage，today‘s successful firms，unlike successful firms in the past，may earn the greatestprofits by
（a） investing in research to produce cheaper versions of existing technology
（b） being the first to market a competing technology
（c） adapting rapidly to a technological standard previously set by a competing firm
（d） establishing technological leadership in order to shape product definitions in advance of competing firms.
（e） emphasizing the development of methods for the mass production and distribution of a new technology.
3. according to the passage，consumers began to develop a preference for vcr‘s in the vhs format because theybelieved which of the following？
（a） vcr‘s in the vhs format were technically better than competing-format vcr’s.
（b） vcr‘s in the vhs format were less expensive than competing-format vcr’s.
（c） vhs was the first standard format for vcr‘s.
（d） vhs prerecorded videotapes were more available than beta-format tapes.
（e） vcr‘s in the beta format would soon cease to be produced.
4. the author implies that one way that vhs producers won control over the vcr market was by
（a） carefully restricting access to vcr technology
（b） giving up a slight early lead in vcr sales in order to improve long-term prospects.
（c） retaining a strict monopoly on the production of prerecorded videotapes.
（d） sharing control of the marketing of vhs-format vcr‘s
（e） sacrificing technological superiority over betaformat vcr‘s in order to remain competitive in price.
5. the alignment of producers of vhs-format vcr‘s with producers of prerecorded videotapes is most similar to which of the following？
（a） the alignment of an automobile manufacturer with another automobile manufacturer to adopt a standard design for automobile engines.
（b） the alignment of an automobile manufacturer with an automotive glass company whereby the manufacturer agrees to purchase automobile windshields only from that one glass company
（c） the alignment of an automobile manufacturer with a petroleum company to ensure the widespread availability of the fuel required by a new type of engine developed by the manufacturer.
（d） the alignment of an automobile manufacturer with its dealers to adopt a plan to improve automobile design.
（e） the alignment of an automobile dealer with an automobile rental chain to adopt a strategy for an advertising campaign to promote a new type of automobile
6. which of the following best describes the relation of the first paragraph to the passage as a whole？
（a） it makes a general observation to be exemplified.
（b） it outlines a process to be analyzed.
（c） it poses a question to be answered.
（d） it advances an argument to be disputed.
（e） it introduces conflicting arguments to be reconciled.
passage 50
australian researchers have discovered electroreceptors（sensory organs designed to respond to electrical fields）clustered at the tip of the spiny anteater‘s snout. the researchers made this discovery by exposing small areas of（5） the snout to extremely weak electrical fields and recording the transmission of resulting nervous activity to the brain.while it is true that tactile receptors，another kind of sensory organ on the anteater’s snout，can also respond to electrical stimuli， such receptors do so only in response to（ 10）electrical field strengths about 1，000 times greater than those known to excite electroreceptors.
having discovered the electroreceptors，researchers are now investigating how anteaters utilize such a sophisticated sensory system. in one behavioral experiment，researchers（15）successfully trained an anteater to distinguish betweentwo troughs of water， one with a weak electrical field and the other with none. such evidence is consistent withresearchers‘ hypothesis that anteaters use electroreceptorsto detect electrical signals given off by prey；however，（ 20） researchers as yet have been unable to detect electrical signals emanating from termite mounds，where the favorite food of anteaters live. still，researchers have observed anteaters breaking into a nest of ants at an oblique angle and quickly locating nesting chambers. this ability quickly（25）to locate unseen prey suggests，according to the researchers，that the anteaters were using their electroreceptors to locate the nesting chambers.
1. according to the passage，which of the following is a characteristic that distinguishes electroreceptors fromtactile receptors？
（a） the manner in which electroreceptors respond to electrical stimuli
（b） the tendency of electroreceptors to be found in clusters
（c） the unusual locations in which electroreceptors are found in most species.
（d） the amount of electrical stimulation required to excite electroreceptors
（e） the amount of nervous activity transmitted to the brain by electroreceptors when they are excited
2. which of the following can be inferred about the experiment described in the first paragraph？
（a） researchers had difficulty verifying the existence of electroreceptors in the anteater because electroreceptors respond to such a narrow range of electrical field strengths.
（b） researchers found that the level of nervous activity in the anteater‘s brain increased dramatically as the strength of the electrical stimulus was increased.
（c） researchers found that some areas of the anteater‘s snout were not sensitive to a weak electrical stimulus.
（d） researchers found that the anteater‘s tactile receptors were more easily excited by a strong electrical stimulus than were the electro receptors……
（e） researchers tested small areas of the anteater‘s snout in order to ensure that only electroreceptors were responding to the stimulus.
3. the author of the passage most probably discusses thefunction of tactile receptors （lines 7-11） in order to
（a） eliminate and alternative explanation of anteaters‘response to electrical stimuli
（b） highlight a type of sensory organ that has a function identical to that of electroreceptors
（c） point out a serious complication in the research on electroreceptors in anteaters.
（d） suggest that tactile receptors assist electroreceptors in the detection of electrical signals.
（e） introduce a factor that was not addressed in the research on electroreceptors in anteaters.
4. which of the following can be inferred about anteaters from the behavioral experiment mentioned in the second paragraph？
（a） they are unable to distinguish between stimuli detected by their electroreceptors and stimuli detected by their tactile receptors.
（b） they are unable to distinguish between the electrical signals emanating from termite mounds and those emanating from ant nests.
（c） they can be trained to recognize consistently the presence of a particular stimulus.
（d） they react more readily to strong than to weak stimuli.
（e） they are more efficient at detecting stimuli in a controlled environment than in a natural environment.
5. the passage suggests that the researchers mentioned inthe second paragraph who observed anteaters break intoa nest of ants would most likely agree with which of thefollowing statements？
（a） the event they observed provides conclusive evidence that anteaters use their electroreceptors to locate unseen prey.
（b） the event they observed was atypical and may not reflect the usual hunting practices of anteaters.
（c） it is likely that the anteaters located the ants‘ nesting chambers without the assistance of electroreceptors.
（d） anteaters possess a very simple sensory system for use in locating prey.
（e） the speed with which the anteaters located their prey is greater than what might be expected on the basis of chance alone.
6. which of the following， if true， would most strengthenthe hypothesis mentioned in lines 17-19？
（a） researchers are able to train anteaters to break into an underground chamber that is emitting a strong electrical signal.
（b） researchers are able to detect a weak electricalsignal emanating from the nesting chamber of an antcolony.
（c） anteaters are observed taking increasingly longer amounts of time to locate the nesting chambers of ants.
（d） anteaters are observed using various angles to break into nests of ants.
（e） anteaters are observed using the same angle usedwith nests of ants to break into the nests of other typesof prey.
passage 51
when a. philip randolph assumed the leadership of the brotherhood of sleeping car porters，he began a ten-year battle to win recognition from the pullman company， the largest private employer of black people in the united（5） states and the company that controlled the railroad industry‘s sleeping car and parlor service. in 1935 the brotherhood became the first black union recognized by a major corporation. randolph’s efforts in the battle helped transform the attitude of black workers toward unions and（10）toward themselves as an identifiable group；eventually，randolph helped to weaken organized labor‘s antagonism toward black workers.
in the pullman contest randolph faced formidable obstacles. the first was black workers‘understandable（ 15）skepticism toward unions， which had historically barredblack workers from membership. an additional obstaclewas the union that pullman itself had formed， which weakened support among black workers for an independent entity.
（20）the brotherhood possessed a number of advantages，however，including randolph‘s own tactical abilities. in 1928 he took the bold step of threatening a strike against pullman. such a threat， on a national scale， under black leadership，helped replace the stereotype of the black（25）worker as servant with the image of the black worker as wage earner. in addition，the porters’very isolation aided the brotherhood. porters were scattered throughout the country，sleeping in dormitories in black communities；their segregated life protected the union‘s internal（30） communications from interception. that the porters were a homogeneous group working for a single employer with single labor policy，thus sharing the same grievances from city to city，also strengthened the brotherhood and encour- aged racial identity and solidarity as well. but it was only（35）in the early 1930’s that federal legislation prohibiting a company from maintaining its own unions with company money eventually allowed the brotherhood to become recognized as the porters‘ representative.
not content with this triumph， randolph brought the（40）brotherhood into the american federation of labor， where it became the equal of the federation‘s 105 other unions.he reasoned that as a member union，the brotherhood would be in a better position to exert pressure on member unions that practiced race restrictions. such restrictions were eventually found unconstitutional in 1944.
1. according to the passage，by 1935 the skepticism ofblack workers toward unions was
（a） unchanged except among black employees of railroad-related industries.
（b） reinforced by the actions of the pullman company‘s union
（c） mitigated by the efforts of randolph
（d） weakened by the opening up of many unions to black workers.
（e） largely alleviated because of the policies of the american federation of labor.
2. in using the word “understandable” （line 14），the author most clearly conveys
（a） sympathy with attempts by the brotherhood between 1925 and 1935 to establish an independent union.
（b） concern that the obstacles faced by randolph between 1925 and 1935 were indeed formidable
（c） ambivalence about the significance of unions to most black workers in the 1920‘s.
（d） appreciation of the attitude of many black workers in the 1920‘s toward unions.
（e） regret at the historical attitude of unions toward black workers.
3. the passage suggests which of the following about theresponse of porters to the pullman company‘s ownunion？
（a） few porters ever joined this union.
（b） some porters supported this union before 1935.
（c） porters， more than other pullman employees，enthusiastically supported this union.
（d） the porters‘ response was most positive after 1935.
（e） the porters‘ response was unaffected by the general skepticism of black workers concerning unions.
4. the passage suggests that if the grievances of porters in one part of the united states had been different fromthose of porters in another part of the country， which ofthe following would have been the case？
（a） it would have been more difficult for the pullman company to have had a single labor policy.
（b） it would have been more difficult for the brotherhood to control its channels of communication.
（c） it would have been more difficult for the brotherhood to uild its membership.
（d） it would have been easier for the pullman company‘s union to attract membership.
（e） it would have been easier for the brotherhood to threaten strikes.
5. the passage suggests that in the 1920‘s a company inthe united states was able to
（a） use its own funds to set up a union
（b） require its employees to join the company‘s own union
（c） develop a single labor policy for all its employees with little employee dissent.
（d） pressure its employees to contribute money to maintain the company‘s own union
（e） use its resources to prevent the passage of federal legislation that would have facilitated the formation of independent unions.
6. the passage supplies information concerning which of the following matters related to randolph？
（a） the steps he took to initiate the founding of the brotherhood
（b） his motivation for bringing the brotherhood into the american federation of labor
（c） the influence he had on the passage of legislation overturning race restrictions in 1944
（d） the influence he had on the passage of legislation to bar companies from financing their own unions
（e） the success he and the brotherhood had in influencing the policies of the other unions in the american federation of labor
passage 52
seeking a competitive advantage， some professional service firms（for example，firms providing advertising，accounting，or health care services）have considered offering unconditional guarantees of satisfaction. such（5）guarantees specify what clients can expect and what the firm will do if it fails to fulfill these expectations.particularly with first-time clients，an unconditional guarantee can be an effective marketing tool if the client is very cautious，the firm‘s fees are high，the（10）negative consequences of bad service are grave，or business is difficult to obtain through referrals and word-of-mouth.
however， an unconditional guarantee can sometimes hinder marketing efforts. with its implication that fail-（15）ure is possible，the guarantee may，paradoxically，cause clients to doubt the service firm‘s ability to deliver the promised level of service. it may conflict with a firm’s desire to appear sophisticated，or may even suggest that a firm is begging for business. in legal and health care（20）services，it may mislead clients by suggesting that law-suits or medical procedures will have guaranteed out-comes. indeed，professional service firms with outstandin reputations and performance to match have little to gain from offering unconditional guarantees. and any firm（25） that implements an unconditional guarantee without undertaking a commensurate commitment to quality of service is merely employing a potentially costly marketing gimmick.
1. the primary function of the passage as a whole is to
（a） account for the popularity of a practice
（b） evaluate the utility of a practice
（c） demonstrate how to institute a practice
（d） weigh the ethics of using a strategy
（e） explain the reasons for pursuing a strategy
2. all of the following are mentioned in the passage ascircumstances in which professional service firms canbenefit from offering an unconditional guarantee except：
（a） the firm is having difficulty retaining its clients of long standing.
（b） the firm is having difficulty getting business through client recommendations.
（c） the firm charges substantial fees for its services.
（d） the adverse effects of poor performance by the firm are significant for the client.
（e） the client is reluctant to incur risk.
3. which of the following is cited in the passage as a goal of some professional service firms in offeringunconditional guarantees of satisfaction？
（a） a limit on the firm‘s liability
（b） successful competition against other firms
（c） ability to justify fee increases
（d） attainment of an outstanding reputation in a field
（e） improvement in the quality of the firm‘s service
4. the passage‘s description of the issue raised by unconditional guarantees for health care or legalservices most clearly implies that which of the followingis true？
（a） the legal and medical professions have standards of practice that would be violated by attempts to fulfill such unconditional guarantees.
（b） the result of a lawsuit of medical procedure cannot necessarily be determined in advance by the professionals handling a client‘s case.
（c） the dignity of the legal and medical professions is undermined by any attempts at marketing of professional services， including unconditional guarantees.
（d） clients whose lawsuits or medical procedures have unsatisfactory outcomes cannot be adequately compensated by financial settlements alone.
（e） predicting the monetary cost of legal or health care services is more difficult than predicting the monetary cost of other types of professional services.
5. which of the following hypothetical situations best exemplifies the potential problem noted in the secondsentence of the second paragraph （lines 14-17）？
（a） a physician‘s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction encourages patients to sue for malpractice if they are unhappy with the treatment they receive.
（b） a lawyer‘s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients suspect that the lawyer needs to find new clients quickly to increase the firm’s income.
（c） a business consultant‘s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction is undermined when the consultant fails to provide all of the services that are promised.
（d） an architect‘s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction makes clients wonder how often the architect’s buildings fail to please clients.
（e） an accountant‘s unconditional guarantee of satisfaction leads clients to believe that tax returns prepared by the accountant are certain to be accurate.
6. the passage most clearly implies which of the following about the professional service firms mentioned in line22？
（a） they are unlikely to have offered unconditional guarantees of satisfaction in the past.
（b） they are usually profitable enough to be able to compensate clients according to the terms of an unconditional guarantee.
（c） they usually practice in fields in which the outcomes are predictable.
（d） their fees are usually more affordable than those charged by other professional service firms.
（e） their clients are usually already satisfied with the quality of service that is delivered.y of service that is delivered.
passage 53
although genetic mutations in bacteria and virusescan lead to epidemics， some epidemics are caused bybacteria and viruses that have undergone no significantgenetic change. in analyzing the latter，scientists have（5）discovered the importance of social and ecological fac-tors to epidemics. poliomyelitis，for example，emerged as an epidemic in the united states in the twentieth century；by then，modern sanitation was able to delay exposure to polio until adolescence or adulthood，at（10）which time polio infection produced paralysis. previ-ously，infection had occurred during infancy，when it typically provided lifelong immunity without paralysis.
thus， the hygiene that helped prevent typhoid epidemics indirectly fostered a paralytic polio epidemic. another（15）example is lyme disease，which is caused by bacteriathat are transmitted by deer ticks. it occurred only spo- radically during the late nineteenth century but hasrecently become prevalent in parts of the united states，largely due to an increase in the deer population that（20）occurred simultaneously with the growth of the suburbs and increased outdoor recreational activities in the deer‘s habitat. similarly， an outbreak of dengue hemor-rhagic fever became an epidemic in asia in the 1950’s because of ecological changes that caused aedes aegypti，（25）the mosquito that transmits the dengue virus， to proliferate the stage is now set in the united states for a dengue epidemic because of the inadvertent introduction and wide dissemination of another mosquito， aedes albopictus.
1. the passage suggests that a lack of modern sanitation would make which of the following most likely to occur？
（a） an outbreak of lyme disease
（b） an outbreak of dengue hemorrhagic fever
（c） an epidemic of typhoid
（d） an epidemic of paralytic polio among infants
（e） an epidemic of paralytic polio among adolescents and adults
2. according to the passage， the outbreak of denguehemorrhagic fever in the 1950‘s occurred for which ofthe following reasons？
（a） the mosquito aedes aegypti was newly introduced into asia.
（b） the mosquito aedes aegypti became more numerous.
（c） the mosquito aedes albopictus became infected with the dengue virus.
（d） individuals who would normally acquire immunity to the dengue virus as infants were not infected until later in life.
（e） more people began to visit and inhabit areas in which mosquitos live and breed.
3. it can be inferred from the passage that lyme diseasehas become prevalent in parts of the united statesbecause of which of the following？
（a） the inadvertent introduction of lyme disease bacteria to the united states
（b） the inability of modern sanitation methods to eradicate lyme disease bacteria
（c） a genetic mutation in lyme disease bacteria that makes them more virulent
（d） the spread of lyme disease bacteria from infected humans to noninfected humans
（e） an increase in the number of humans who encounter deer ticks
4. which of the following can most reasonably beconcluded about the mosquito aedes albopictus on thebasis of information given in the passage？
（a） it is native to the united states.
（b） it can proliferate only in asia.
（c） it transmits the dengue virus.
（d） it caused an epidemic of dengue hemorrhagic fever in the 1950‘s.
（e） it replaced aedes aegypti in asia when ecological changes altered aedes aegypti‘s habitat.
5. which of the following best describes the organization of the passage？
（a） a paradox is stated，discussed and left unresolved.
（b） two opposing explanations are presented， argued，and reconciled.
（c） a theory is proposed and is then followed by descriptions of three experiments that support the theory.
（d） a generalization is stated and is then followed by three instances that support the generalization.
（e） an argument is described and is then followed by three counterexamples that refute the argument.
6. which of the following， if true，would most strengthenthe author‘s assertion about the cause of the lymedisease outbreak in the united states？
（a） the deer population was smaller in the late nineteenth century than in the mid-twentieth century.
（b） interest in outdoor recreation began to grow in the late nineteenth century.
（c） in recent years the suburbs have stopped growing.
（d） outdoor recreation enthusiasts routinely take measures to protect themselves against lyme disease.
（e） scientists have not yet developed a vaccine that can prevent lyme disease.
passage 54
two modes of argumentation have been used on behalf of women‘s emancipation in western societies.arguments in what could be called the “relational”feminist tradition maintain the doctrine of “equality in（5） difference，” or equity as distinct for equality. they posit that biological distinctions between the sexes result in a necessary sexual division of labor in the family and throughout society and that women’s pro-creative labor is currently undervalued by society， to（10）the disadvantage of women. by contrast， the individual-ist feminist tradition emphasizes individual human rights and celebrates women‘s quest for personal autonomy，while downplaying the importance of gender roles and minimizing discussion of childbearing and its attendant（15） responsibilities.
before the late nineteenth century，these views coexisted within the feminist movement，often within the writings of the same individual. between 1890 nd 1920，however，relational feminism，which had been the（20） dominant strain in feminist thought，and which still pre-dominates among european and non-western feminists，lost ground in england and the united states. because the concept of individual rights was already well estab-lished in the anglo-saxon legal and political tradition，（25）individualist feminism came to predominate in english-speaking countries. at the same time， the goals of the two approaches began to seem increasingly irreconcil-able. individualist feminists began to advocate a totally gender-blind system with equal rights for all. relational（30） feminists，while agreeing that equal educational and economic opportunities outside the home should be avail-able for all women，continued to emphasize women‘s special contributions to society as homemakers and mothers；they demanded special treatment（35）including protective legislation for women workers，state-sponsored maternity benefits，and paid compensa-tion for housework.
relational arguments have a major pitfall：because they underline women‘s physiological and psychological（40） distinctiveness，they are often appropriated by political adversaries and used to endorse male privilege. but the individualist approach，by attacking gender roles，deny-ing the significance of physiological difference，and condemning existing familial institutions as hopelessly（45）patriarchal，has often simply treated as irrelevant the family roles important to many women. if the individu-alist framework，with its claim for women’s autonomy， could be harmonized with the family-oriented concerns of relational feminists，a more fruitful model for con-（50） temporary feminist politics could emerge.
1. the author of the passage alludes to the well-established nature of the concept of individual rights in the anglo-saxon legal and political tradition in order to
（a） illustrate the influence of individualist feminist thought on more general intellectual trends in english history
（b） argue that feminism was already a part of the larger anglo-saxon intellectual tradition， even though this has often gone unnoticed by critics of women‘semancipation.
（c） explain the decline in individualist thinking among feminists in non-english-speaking countries
（d） help account for an increasing shift toward individualist feminism among feminists in english-speaking countries.
（e） account for the philosophical differences between individualist and relational feminists in english-speaking countries
2. the passage suggests that the author of the passagebelieves which of the following？
（a） the predominance of individualist feminism in english-speaking countries is a historical phenomenon，the causes of which have not yet been investigated.
（b） the individualist and relational feminist views are irreconcilable， given their theoretical differences concerning the foundations of society.
（c） a consensus concerning the direction of future feminist politics will probably soon emerge， given the awareness among feminists of the need for cooperation among women.
（d） political adversaries of feminism often misuse arguments predicated on differences between the sexes to argue that the existing social system should be maintained.
（e） relational feminism provides the best theoretical framework for contemporary feminist politics， but individualist feminism could contribute much toward refining and strengthening modern feminist thought.
3. it can be inferred from the passage that the individualist feminist tradition denies the validity of which of thefollowing causal statements？
（a） a division of labor in a social group can result in increased efficiency with regard to the performance of group tasks.
（b） a division of labor in a social group causes inequities in the distribution of opportunities and benefits among group members.
（c） a division of labor on the basis of gender in a social group is necessitated by the existence of sex-linked biological differences between male and female members of the group.
（d） culturally determined distinctions based on gender in a social group foster the existence of differing attitudesand opinions among group members.
（e） educational programs aimed at reducing inequalities based on gender among members of a social group can result in a sense of greater well-being for all members of the group.
4. according to the passage，relational feminists and individualist feminists agree that
（a） individual human rights take precedence over most other social claims
（b） the gender-based division of labor in society should be eliminated
（c） laws guaranteeing equal treatment for all citizens regardless of gender should be passed
（d） a greater degree of social awareness concerning the importance of motherhood would be beneficial to society
（e） the same educational and economic opportunities should be available to both sexes
5. according to the author， which of the following was trueof feminist thought in western societies before 1890？
（a） individualist feminist arguments were not found in the thought or writing of non-english-speaking feminists.
（b） individualist feminism was a strain in feminist thought， but another strain， relational feminism， predominated.
（c） relational and individualist approaches were equally prevalent in feminist thought and writing.
（d） the predominant view among feminists held that the welfare of women was ultimately less important than the welfare of children.
（e） the predominant view among feminists held that the sexes should receive equal treatment under the law.
6. the author implies that which of the following was trueof most feminist thinkers in england and the unitedstates after 1920？
（a） they were less concerned with politics than with intellectual issues.
（b） they began to reach a broader audience and their programs began to be adopted by mainstream political parties.
（c） they called repeatedly for international cooperation among women‘s groups to achieve their goals.
（d） they moderated their initial criticism of the economic systems that characterized their societies.
（e） they did not attempt to unite the two different feminist approaches in their thought.
