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1 - Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer. Of these, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.
2 - Extension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development. Extension of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which as the term suggests are confined to specialized use. Words commonized from proper nouns have experienced the same semantic change.
3 - Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.
When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. The same is true of material nouns, which are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense.
4 - Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
5 - Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
6 - Transfer. Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced, the process of semantic transfer. There is associated transfer, for example, the lip of a wound; the tongue of a bell; the nose of a plane, in which the meaning is transferred through association.
7 - There are gemerally two major factors that cause changes in meaning.
Extra-linguistic facotors: Historical reason. Class reason. Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social classes. Psychological reason. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors.
Linguistic Factors: The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. the change of meaning is brought about by analogy.
Chapter 8
1 - In a narrow sense, it refers
to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.In a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. In a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
2 - Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.
Lexical context This context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words.
Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context.
3 - The Role of Context:
Elimination of Ambiguity, Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy.Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.
Indication of Referents.
Provision of Clues for Inferring Word meaning: In many cases, when a new word (thought to be) appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints which might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:
1) Definition. Often we find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term, e.g.
2) Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is, he might make a restatement in known words e.g.
3) Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term, e.g.
4) Synonymy. Synonyms or synonymous expressions are frequently employed by authors to explain new words, e.g.
5) Antonymy. Contrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain unknown words, e.g.
6) Hyponymy. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue, e.g.
7) Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent, e.g.
8) Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words, e.g.
