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句子是由词或短语按语法规则组成，表达一个完整意思的语言单位。好的英语句子应该是结构意思正确完整，连贯流畅，言简意赅。但是如果一篇文章中所有的句子都是结构单一(以主语开头，采用"主-谓-宾"或"主-谓-表"的结构)、长短均等的话，句子写得再好，文章也是单调呆板，缺乏生气。要克服这种句式"单一"现象，可以通过变换句子开头以及句式两种手段。
一、句子开头多样化
写作时最常见的是用名词或代词构成的主语作为句子的开头。除了主语外，句子中还有以下几种成分可以作为句子的开头。
1.以同位语作为句子的开头。试比较下列两个句子：
A. Xiao Wang, our monitor，will attend the meeting.
B. Our monitor, Xiao Wang, will attend the meeting.
句A以主语Xiao Wang开头，句B以同位语Our monitor开头。
2.以单个修饰语作为句子的开头。
这个修饰语可以是形容词、分词或副词。试比较下面几组句子：
A. She is young and ambitious, she works hard to get the job.
B. Young and ambitious, she works hard to get the job.
句A以主语She开头，句B以形容词短语Young and ambitious开头。
C. The girl entered the room gracefully.
D. Gracefully, the girl entered the room.
句C以主语The girl开头，句D以副词Gracefully开头。
E. The students reached the top of the mountain exhausted.
F. Exhausted, the students reached the top of the mountain.
句E以主语The students开头，句F以过去分词Exhausted开头。
3.以短语修饰语作为句子的开头。
短语修饰语可以是介词短语、不定式短语、分词短语以及独立主格结构。试比较下列各组句子：
A. A beautiful girl stood in front of me.
B. In front of me stood a beautiful girl.
句A以主语A beautiful girl开头，句B以介词短语In front of开头。
C. The students worked hard to pass the exam.
D. To pass the exam, the students worked hard.
句C以主语The students开头，句D以不定式短语To pass the exam开头。
E. He was confused about the problem and went to ask for his teacher.
F. Confused about the problem, he went to ask for his teacher.
句E以主语He开头，句F以过去分词短语Confused about开头。
G. You may go home after you finish your homework.
H. Your homework finished, you may go home.
句G以主语You开头，句H以独立主格结构Your homework finished开头。
4.用从句作为句子的开始。试比较下列句子：
A. I will attend your lecture if I am free.
B. If I am free, I will attend your lecture.
C. We all know she is famous.
D. That she is famous is known to us all.
句A和句C以主语开始，句B和句D以从句开始。
值得注意的是句子的开头与句子所需强调的意义密切相关。改变词序有时会导致句子意义的细微变化。因此，在特定的上下文中决定是否改变某一句子的词序时，不仅要考虑我们所要表达的意思(如为了强调句子中的某个成分，将正常语序中较晚出现的成分移到句首)，还要考虑是否有利于上下文的衔接过渡以及句子是否均衡等。
二、句式的多样化
句式多样化是对一篇好的文章的基本要求。要做到这一点，首先要对英语句子有充分的了解。英语句子种类很多，句法结构丰富多彩。通常可以按照以下标准对英语句子进行分类：
1.根据使用目的的不同，将句子分为陈述句，疑问句，祈使句和感叹句。
(1)陈述句说明一个事实或是陈述说话人的看法。例如：
A. He must have finished his homework.
B. She is a diligent student.
(2)疑问句提出问题。例如：
A. Does she know English?
B. What did you do last night?
(3)祈使句用来表示请求，命令，叮嘱，邀请，劝告等。例如：
A. Have a cup of tea.
B. Don't smoke.
(4)感叹句表示说话时的惊讶，喜悦，气愤等情绪。例如：
A. What an interesting film!
B. How beautiful it is!
2.根据语法结构的不同，将句子分为简单句，并列句，复合句以及并列复合句。
(1)如果一个句子只有一个主谓结构，这个句子是简单句。例如：
A. She has finished her homework.
B. Both my brother and sister are teachers.
(2)如果一个句子包含两个或两个以上的互不依从的主谓结构，这个句子是并列句。并列句中的两个或两个以上的主谓结构通常由逗号和并列连词来连接。例如：
A. Honey is sweet, but the bee stings.
B. Type O is the most common blood type in the world, and type AB is the rarest.
(3)如果一个句子包含两个或两个以上的主谓结构，其中一个或一个以上的主谓结构充当另一个主谓结构中的某一(些)成分，如主语，宾语，定语等，该句为复合句。例如：
A. Because the luxury liner was traveling so fast, it was impossible to avoid the ghostly looking iceberg.
C. Some people say that it may result in some social problems in the future.
(4)当一个并列句中的一个(或更多的)主谓结构中包含有一个(或更多的)主谓结构时，这种句子为并列复合句。例如：
A. He was watching me or something for an hour or two, drawing back the curtain so little lest I catch him, but I saw his face, and I think I can see the anxiety upon it, the worried impatience.
B. I have brought what you need, but you haven't brought what I need.
3.根据不同的修辞功能，句子可分为松散句，圆周句，对偶句，平行结构句，长句和短句。
(1)松散句和圆周句。
在一个句子中，先介绍主要的信息，再介绍次要的信息，这样的句子叫松散句。松散句的结构比较松散，其各个部分往往能独立表示某一意义。在一个句子中先介绍次要的信息，再介绍重要的信息，即要到句子的末尾，句子的意思才完全表达清楚，这样的句子叫圆周句。圆周句的结构紧凑，只有读完整个句子，全句的整体意思才能显现出来。例如：
A. The workers here are mostly diligent, though not all.
B. The workers here are mostly, though not all，diligent.
C. He will go abroad if he has enough money.
D. If he has enough money, he will go abroad.
句A和句C为松散句，句B和句D为圆周句。
一般来讲，按正常语序排列的简单句、并列句，主句在前从句在后的复合句都属于松散句。松散句便于组织，便于理解，便于使用，是人们常用的句式。修饰语(尤其是状语)位于句首的简单句以及从句在前主句在后的复合句属于圆周句。圆周句的重心在后，可以造成一种悬念，抓住读者的注意力，因而可以收到一种特殊的效果。但圆周句不能使用太频繁，因为没有人愿意一直处于等待和悬念当中。
(2)对偶句是在句中用平对或对称的结构来表现两种相反的意思。由于其结构匀称整齐，前后两层意思相反，可达到强调的效果。例如：
A. What is written without effect is in general read without pleasure.
B. Deeds show what we are; words what we should be.
(3)平行结构句就是把两个或两个以上的结构相同，意义并重，语气一致的词、短语或句子排列成串形成一个整体，以加强语气，达到强调的目的。例如：
A. We can gain knowledge by reading, by reflection, by observation or by practice.
B. I have a dream that my four children will someday live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
(4)长句和短句。
根据句子的长短，句子可分为长句和短句。例如：
A different form of reading might also be done, as it was in the past: reading aloud. Few pastimes bring a family closer together than gathering around and listening to mother or father to read a good story. The quite hour could become the story hour...
该段中前两句为长句，第三句为短句。一般来讲，短句短小精悍，可达到强调的目的，长句修饰成分多，可以清楚准确地表达复杂的思想。短句多运用于日常谈话，演讲，少儿作品或人物对话中;长句常用于政论文，科技文章以及文学作品的叙述描写等。
在写作时，应根据实际情况，交替使用各种句式。然而，值得注意的是，在变换句子开头和句式时，不能为变化而变化。在很大程度上，使用什么句式还跟文章的文体、内容等因素有关(例如在科技文体中多用长句和圆周句)，即内容决定形式。
英语短文写作(五)
三、短文写作的主要文体
研究生英语入学考试短文写作的方式有：命题作文、看图作文、情景作文、给出提纲(或段首句)等。主要文体有：论说文(argumentation)、说明文(exposition)、描写文(description)、记叙文(narration)、应用文(practical writing)、图表作文、情景作文。
1. 论说文
1)概述：议论是讲道理，论是非。议论文的作用就是论证某一观点、看法或主张。作者通过事实和逻辑推理来阐明自己的观点，表明赞成什么或反对什么，以达到影响读者的思想和行动。一段完整的议论是由论点、论据和论证组成的。论点是作者的观点或主张，一般情况下一篇文章只有一个论点(即所谓的中心论点);论据是作者用来证明论点的理由和事实(具体的事例、统计数据、名人的理论或科学公理等);论证是作者用一系列的论据来证明自己的观点或反驳别人的论点的推理过程。写议论文时考生必须注意其论点要明确，论据要充分、恰当，推理要逻辑性强，文章层次要分明。
2)写作方法：论说文的写作方法主要有归纳法、演绎法、类比法等。
A) 归纳法(induction)是指从若干个别事例和现象中综合它们的共同本质，总结出普遍的道理、观点或看法。如：Americans feel proud of themselves for working hard, but they feel equally proud of themselves when they sit and do nothing over weekends. As a matter of fact, some Americans measure success in terms of the length and frequency of their vacations. The man who gets a month’s vacation each year considers himself more successful than the man who gets two weeks. Many people become teachers because teachers get a three-month vacation every year. Some college teachers who teach three classes consider themselves less successful than one who teaches only one or two or none at all. In brief, the less work Americans do, the more successful they consider themselves.
这一篇短文列举了美国人如何看待工作和成就的种种自相矛盾的态度，最后得出一个看法：某些美国人认为，工作干得越少，就越成功。
B) 演绎法(deduction)是指从一般论断(公认的、众所周知的原理或道理)来推断出一个观点。如：The “Band Wagon” is a device to make us follow the crowd, to accept the propagandist’s program en masse(全体、整个地). Here his theme is: “Everybody’s doing it.” His techniques range from those of the medicine show to dramatic spectacle. He hires a hall, fills a great stadium, marches a million men in parade. He employs symbols, colors, music, movement, all the dramatic arts. He appeals to the desire, common to most of us, to “follow the crowd”. Because he wants us to “follow the crowd” in masses, he directs his appeal to groups held together by common ties of nationality, religion, race, environment, sex, vocation. Thus propagandists campaigning for or against a program will appeal to us as Catholic race or as Negroes; as farmers or as school teachers; as housewives or as miners. All the artifices of flattery are used to harness the fears and hatreds, prejudices and biases, convictions and ideals common to the group; thus emotion is made to push and pull the group on to the Band Wagon. In newspaper article and in the spoken word this device is also found. “Don’t throw your vote away. Vote for our candidate. He’s sure to win.” Nearly every candidate wins in every election before the votes are in.
C) 类比法(analogy)是把两种相同或相似的事物加以比较，最后得出一个结论。如：Some old people are oppressed by the fear of death... The best way to overcome it so at least it seems to me is to make your interests gradually wider and more impersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede, and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universal life. An individual human existence should be like a river small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly and in the end, without any visible break, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue...
这里作者把老人的生活比作河流，由于大家对河流比较熟悉，故通过类推的方法来解释老年人的晚年生活。
2. 说明文
1)概述：说明文是说明客观事物的一种文章，它主要是介绍和说明事物的状态、性质、特点、构造、功能、类别，以及解释某种现象的原因和结果，产品的制作过程，事物的运动、变化、产生、消亡过程、原理、规律等。说明文与记叙文、描写文的主要区别在于：记叙文写的是在特定情况下事物的发生与发展;描写文写的是一件事物的外在形态;说明文主要叙述一件事物的内因及其变化。
说明文应该写得条理分明，层次清楚，语言简洁而有逻辑性。只有掌握说明顺序，说明文才能条理分明。常用的说明顺序有：时间顺序、逻辑顺序、空间顺序、认识顺序。时间顺序是指从先到后的顺序;逻辑顺序是指先因后果或先果后因的顺序;空间顺序是指从整体到局部、从上到下、从外到内、从前到后的顺序;认识顺序是指由此及彼、由表及里、由浅入深、由局部到整体、由现象到本质、由具体到抽象的顺序。在写作时，考生一定要注意，一篇文章集中讲一个主题;例证要充分而具体;用词要直接明了。
2)写作方法：
A) 定义法(definition) 在说明事物的过程中，必须交代清楚事物的种类、特征，使读者对事物的特点有一个全面深刻的了解。如：Ambition means the goal in our life. To have one’s ambition does not necessarily mean to become the chief state leaders. This is not in the real sense of the word. The ambition is the goal that encourages us always to look forward and not to lose hope because of failure. Ambition differs from person to person and everyone has his own ambition. Yet not everyone of us can succeed in what we desire to do.
B) 举例法(illustration)通过举例来说明需要阐述的内容。如： Since different people like to do so many different things in their spare time, we could make a long list of hobbies, taking in everything from collecting matchboxes or raising rare fish, to learning about the stars or making model ships. Some hobbies are very popular: stamp collecting, painting and cycling, for example, while others are quite unusual, like collecting insects or traveling on all the trains in one country.
C) 比较与对比法(comparison and contrast)一般来说，比较是对人或事物之间的共同点进行分析;对比是对他们之间的不同点进行分析。在很多情况下，这两种方法可以混合使用。如：It is easy to be a winner. A winner can show his joy publicly. He can laugh and sing and dance and celebrate his victory. People love to be with winners. Winners are never lonely.
Unlike winners, losers are the lonely ones of the world. It is difficult to face defeat with dignity. Losers cannot show their disappointment publicly. They cannot cry or grieve about their defeat. They may suffer privately, but they must be composed in public. They have nothing to celebrate and no one to share their sadness.
